RPSC Vice Principal ITI ITE Solved Questions

[ Option D ]

The attribute X is a composite attribute made up of three components, A1, A2, and A3, whose domain sizes are 5, 3, and 4 respectively. Since A2 is a multi-valued attribute, it can take multiple values from its domain or even be NULL.

If the domain of A2 has 3 elements, then the number of possible subsets of A2 is 23 = 8, because each element may be either included or not.
Now, the total number of possible combinations for X is calculated as:
Domain size of X = (Domain of A1) × (Domain of A2) × (Domain of A3)
Domain size of X = 5 × 8 × 4 = 160

[ Option D ]

The loop executes 3 times, incrementing both a and i in each iteration. After the loop ends, the value of a becomes 8. The statement printf("%d", a++); prints the current value of a, which is 8. Since it is a post-increment, a is increased to 9 after printing, but this updated value is not displayed.

[ Option B ]

A NAND gate produces the output as the negation of the AND operation, i.e., Y=(A⋅B)’. If one of its inputs is permanently connected to 0, then the AND operation becomes 0⋅B=0. So, Y=(0⋅B)′=0′=1. This means the output of the NAND gate will always be 1 regardless of the other input. Hence, the correct answer is 1.

[ Option B ]

Cohesion refers to how closely the elements within a single module of a program are related to one another. The higher the cohesion, the better the design, as the module performs a single, well-defined task. Different types of cohesion describe different levels of relationship among module elements.

• Best Type : Functional Cohesion.
• Worst Type : Co-incidental Cohesion.

QUALITY ORDER FROM WORST TO BEST:
Co-incidental → Logical → Temporal → Procedural → Communicational → Sequential → Functional.

[ Option D ]

The expression *(arr+3) accesses the 4th element of the array (4). Adding 65 gives 69. Since %c is used, ASCII 69 is printed, which is E.

[ Option A ]

In a distributed database system, data is stored across multiple sites or nodes, and there are two main approaches to store relations.

1. Replication.
2. Fragmentation.

Replication involves storing copies of the same data at multiple sites to increase availability and allow parallel query processing. However, replication requires synchronizing updates across copies to maintain consistency, which adds overhead.
Fragmentation involves dividing a relation into smaller parts called fragments, and storing each fragment at a site where it is most needed.

• Horizontal Fragmentation: Partitioning by rows, each fragment contains a subset of tuples.
• Vertical Fragmentation: Partitioning by columns, each fragment contains a subset of attributes plus the key attribute for reconstruction.
   

[ Option B ]

In Linux, a critical section is a part of the code that accesses shared resources, such as variables, files, or hardware, that must not be used by more than one process or thread at a time. To prevent data corruption or race conditions, Linux uses synchronization mechanisms to protect these critical sections. The most common technique used in the Linux kernel for this purpose is the spinlock.

A spinlock is a lightweight lock used in Linux to protect a critical section. It makes a process “spin” in a loop until it can enter the section, ensuring that only one process accesses the shared resource at a time without using heavy context switching.

[ Option B ]

An ACD (Architectural Context Diagram) provides a high-level view of the system and shows how it fits into its environment. It illustrates the system boundary and depicts all external interfaces through which the system communicates with other entities.

This helps designers and stakeholders understand what lies inside and outside the system’s scope, ensuring that all necessary interactions are properly identified and managed.

[ Option C ]

The precedence of logical operator in Python is:

• The not has highest priority.
• The and has medium priority.
• The or has lowest priority.
• Means order of evaluation is  not > and > or

[ Option D ]

During the requirements analysis phase of software engineering, the main goal is to understand what the system should do, not how it will be built. The requirements analysis focuses on describing the system in terms of information, functions, and behavior.

1. The Information Domain deals with the data that the system must handle, such as what information is input, stored, processed, and output.
2. The Functional Domain specifies the operations or functions the software must perform,  describing what services or features are required by the user.
3. The Behavioral Domain explains how the system behaves in response to external events or user interactions, often represented using state diagrams or sequence diagrams.

However, the Architectural Domain is not part of the requirements model. It comes later in the design phase, where the system overall structure and organization are defined.

[ Option D ]

Data classification is a type of supervised learning where the goal is to assign data points to predefined classes based on training data.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA), is not a classification technique. PCA is a dimensionality reduction technique used to reduce the number of features while preserving variance.

[ Option C ]

A Trigger in SQL is a set of actions automatically executed by the database in response to a specific event, such as an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE on a table. Triggers are often used for tasks like maintaining audit logs, enforcing business rules, or validating data automatically.

The action part of a trigger (the code that gets executed) can be performed in two ways:
Row-Level Trigger: The trigger is executed once for every row (tuple) that is modified by the operation.
Statement-Level Trigger: The trigger is executed only once, regardless of how many tuples are affected by the operation.

[ Option B ]

Emails were originally designed to send only ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) text, meaning simple English letters, digits, and symbols. But over time, people needed to send images, audio, video, documents, and text in other languages (Non-ASCII).

To solve this, an additional standard was developed called MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions). It works with existing email protocols like SMTP, POP, or IMAP and allows emails to carry different types of content.
Besides supporting non-ASCII text, MIME also allows multiple parts in a single email, enabling attachments and formatted text. When we attach a photo or a PDF in an email, MIME encodes that file into a format (like Base64) that can be sent as plain text through SMTP. The receiver’s email client then decodes it back to the original file.

[ Option B ]

The SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2) family is a set of cryptographic hash functions designed to provide secure hashing for data integrity and digital signatures. 
SHA-2 includes variants such as SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512, where the number in the name indicates the length of the hash output in bits.
SHA-256, the most commonly used variant, produces a 256-bit (32-Byte) hash value.

[ Option D ]

When we use email, different protocols handle the sending and receiving of messages. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used for sending emails from one server to another, while POP (Post Office Protocol) is designed to download emails from the server to a single device, usually removing them from the server afterward. 

In contrast, IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) allows users to access, manage, and organize their emails directly on the mail server, keeping messages synchronized across multiple devices such as phones, laptops, and tablets.

[ Option C ]

Cyclomatic complexity tells us how many independent paths exist in a program. Here, graph has 17 edges and 13 nodes, there are 6 independent paths that must be tested to cover all possible branches in the logic.
Cyclomatic Complexity (V(G)) :
V(G)=E−N+2
Where:
E is number of edges given as 17.
N is number of nodes given as 13. 
So, 
V(G) = 17−13+2
V(G) = 6

[ Option C ]

HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure) is the secure version of HTTP, which is used for communication between a web browser and a web server. 
Unlike regular HTTP, HTTPS provides encryption and security using the SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) or TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocols. This ensures that any data exchanged, such as passwords, card details, or personal details is protected from unauthorized access.
Every network service on the internet uses a specific port number to communicate. By default, HTTP uses port 80, while HTTPs uses port 443.

[ Option C ]

For a set containing n items, the total number of subsets is given by 2ⁿ. This includes the empty set. To find the number of non-empty subsets, we subtract the empty set, i.e., 2ⁿ−1. 
Here, the itemset has 100 items, so the total number of non-empty subsets is 2¹⁰⁰−1.

[ Option A ]

Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) are used to represent how data moves through a system. A Context Diagram is the highest-level view of a DFD, which provides an overview of the entire system as a single process.
Because it gives this top-level, overall picture without showing internal details, the Context Diagram is also called a Level 0 DFD.

Lower-level DFDs such as Level 1, Level 2, and so on, break this single process into smaller sub-processes, showing more internal details of how the system functions.

[ Option B ]

[ Option D ]

Control structure testing is a type of White-Box testing that focuses on the logical control structures of a program, such as decisions, loops, and conditions, to ensure that all possible execution paths are tested. It includes techniques like, condition testing, data flow testing, Loop testing etc.

The Graph-Based Testing does not belong to control structure testing. It falls under Black-Box testing techniques, where the focus is on relationships between inputs, outputs, and modules rather than internal control flow.

[ Option C ]

OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) and OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) serve different purposes in database systems:
OLTP:

• Focuses on day-to-day transactional operations such as insert, update, and delete.
• Uses Entity-Relationship (ER) models to represent data.
• Consists of short, atomic transactions to ensure consistency and quick response times.
• Not limited to read-only operations, in fact, OLTP involves frequent updates.

OLAP:

• Optimized for analysis and querying large volumes of data.
• Uses star or snowflake schemas for multidimensional data modeling.
• Operations are mostly read-only, like slicing, dicing, and aggregation.

[ Option D ]

In the given schedule, we have the following operations, T1 writes Q before T2 reads Q, T2 reads Q before T3 writes Q, and T3 writes Q before T4 writes Q. These create directed edges T1 → T2, T2 → T3, and T3 → T4 in the precedence graph. Since this graph has no cycles (acyclic), the schedule is conflict serializable and equivalent to the serial order T1 → T2 → T3 → T4.

[ Option B ]

In relational algebra and SQL, the Union (U) operation combines tuples from two relations and removes duplicates. However, for a union operation to be valid, both relations must be Union-Compatible. Two relations are said to be union-compatible if they satisfy the following conditions:

• Same number of attributes (columns).
• Same data types for corresponding attributes.
• Same order of attributes.

If these conditions are not met, the union operation cannot be performed, and the system produces a Syntax Error.

• Remember, attribute names can differ, as long as their positions and data types match.

[ Option B ]

In the context of database design, Normalization is a process used to organize data efficiently within a database, reducing redundancy and improving data integrity.

For the given relation R(A,B,C,D,E,F)  with functional dependencies AB→C, C→ABDE, and ADE→F. We first identify the candidate keys. Here, C and AB are candidate keys because each can uniquely identify all attributes.
The prime attributes (part of key) are A, B, and C, while D, E, and F are non-prime.

To check which normal form the relation satisfies, we start with 2NF (Second Normal Form), which requires that all non-key (non-prime) attributes are fully functionally dependent on the entire primary key. Since no partial dependency exists here, the relation is in 2NF.
For 3NF, every functional dependency X→Y must satisfy means X is a superkey or Y is a prime attribute.

However, the dependency ADE→F violates this because ADE is not a superkey, and  F is not a prime attribute. This means the relation does not satisfy 3NF.
Finally, since the relation is not in 3NF, it also is not in BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form), which is stricter than 3NF.

[ Option B ]

In a Data Warehouse, data comes from multiple heterogeneous sources, such as different databases, formats, and structures. The process of combining this data into a single, consistent view is known as Data Integration.

[ Option A ]

Deadlock Avoidance is a method used by an operating system to ensure that a system never enters a deadlock state. In deadlock avoidance, the OS makes decisions dynamically by checking whether allocating a requested resource will keep the system in a safe state. 

A safe state means that there is at least one sequence in which all processes can complete their execution without getting stuck waiting for each other. The Banker’s Algorithm is a well-known example of deadlock avoidance that works by finding at least one safe sequence before granting a request.

[ Option D ]

A Process is a program in execution. When a program is loaded into memory for execution, the OS assigns it various attributes to help manage and control it effectively. These attributes are part of the Process Control Block (PCB), which contains all the important information about a running process.

[ Option C ]

In computer networks, routing protocols are used by routers to share information about available paths so data can reach its destination efficiently. These routing protocols are broadly classified into classful and classless types.

Classful routing protocols like RIPv1 and IGRP were introduced early in networking when IP addressing followed fixed class boundaries, Class A, B, and C networks. These protocols do not include subnet mask information in their routing updates. As a result, all subnets within the same major network must use the same subnet mask. This limitation makes them incompatible with Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM), where different subnets can have different mask lengths to optimize IP address usage.

In contrast, classless routing protocols like RIPv2, OSPF, and EIGRP, include the subnet mask information in every routing update. This allows routers to support VLSM and CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing), providing better flexibility and efficient use of IP addresses.

[ Option B ]

In this PHP code, the variables $x = 5 and $y = 10 are defined globally. Inside the function fun(), a new local variable $y is created and assigned the value of $GLOBALS['x'] + $GLOBALS['y'], which is 15.
However, since no global $y; keyword is used, this local $y does not affect the global $y. After the function call, the global $y still holds the value 10, so the output is 10.

[ Option B ]

Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a Symmetric Key block cipher algorithm that uses the same secret key for both encryption and decryption.

• In DES, the input block size is 64 bits, meaning the plaintext is divided into 64-bit blocks before encryption. 
• The key size is 56 bits, although the original key is 64 bits long, 8 bits are used for parity and do not contribute to the actual encryption. 
• The output block size is also 64 bits, so each 64-bit plaintext block is transformed into a 64-bit ciphertext block. 

The encryption process in DES consists of a series of operations known as rounds. In DES total 16 rounds are performed, making the encryption much stronger and harder to break through Brute-Force or Statistical Attacks.

[ Option B ]

The characteristic equation of a flip-flop defines the next state Q(n+1) in terms of the present state Q(n) and the input. In the case of a T flip-flop, when T = 0, the output remains unchanged, meaning the next state is the same as the present state. When T = 1, the flip-flop toggles, so the next state becomes the complement of the present state.
This behavior can be expressed mathematically as: Q(n+1) = T ⊕ Q(n) which is equivalent to Q(n+1) = T·Q̅(n) + T̅·Q(n).

[ Option C ]

For a multiplexer, the number of select inputs is decided by the relation,
Select Inputs=log₂(Number of Data Inputs)
An 8:1 multiplexer has 8 data inputs and only one output, which means we need enough select lines to uniquely choose one of the 8 inputs. Since log₂(8) = 3, three select inputs are required.

[ Option B ]

The given resource allocation graph shows two resources, R₁ and R₂, each having two instances, and four processes, T₁, T₂, T₃, and T₄. In this graph, T₁ is waiting for an instance of R₁, while T₂ and T₃ are already holding instances of R₁. Similarly, T₄ is holding an instance of R₂, and T₁ is requesting it. 

Since both resources have multiple instances available, all processes can still be allocated resources without creating a circular wait. Therefore, the system is not always in a deadlock state, and the statement that it is always in deadlock is false.

[ Option B ]

The Open-Closed Principle (OCP) is one of the key object-oriented design principles. It states that a software component such as a class, module, or function should be open for extension but closed for modification. This means that the behavior of a component can be extended without altering its existing source code.

[ Option A ]

When software is developed as a product for many users, developers use Alpha and Beta Testing to find errors that only real users can detect. These tests are performed after internal testing to ensure the software works well in real-world conditions.

• Alpha Testing is done internally by developers and testers within the organization to catch major issues early.
• Beta Testing is done by actual users outside the organization to find hidden bugs and get real user feedback before the final release.

[ Option D ]

Multimedia technology involves the integration of multiple forms of media such as text, audio, images, video, graphics, and animation to present information in an interactive and engaging way. In Information Technology (IT), Multimedia is used to enhance communication, learning, and user experience.
Static text-based systems are not considered multimedia applications because they contain only plain text and no interactive or visual elements.

[ Option B ]

In descriptive statistics, data is analyzed using two main types of measures, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
Measures of Central Tendency describe the center or average of a data set. They indicate where most of the data values lie.

• Mean (Arithmetic Average).
• Median (Middle Value).
• Mode (Most Frequent Value).

Measures of Dispersion describe the spread or variability of data. They show how much the data values differ from the central value. Common examples include:

• Range.
• Variance.
• Standard.

[ Option A ]

In a multidimensional data model used in a data warehouse, data is organized into fact tables and dimension tables.
The Fact Table is the central table that contains quantitative data, also called measures or facts such as sales amount, quantity, or profit.
In addition to the facts, the fact table contains foreign keys that link it to the associated dimension tables.

Dimension Tables provide descriptive context for the facts, such as time, product, customer, or location.

[ Option C ]

When a decision tree is grown to perfectly classify every training instance, it may start capturing noise and random fluctuations in the training data rather than just the underlying patterns. This results in a phenomenon called overfitting, where the model performs exceptionally well on the training set but fails to generalize to new, unseen data.

[ Option B ]

The number of uncommitted transactions is the smallest, the UNDO mechanism requires the recovery manager to attend to the least number of transactions.

[ Option B ]

In Data Warehouse technology, OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) systems provide multidimensional views of data for fast analysis. There are three main OLAP storage models.

[ Option A ]

Phishing is when someone tricks you to give your personal information like passwords, bank details, or ID numbers by sending fake emails, messages, or websites that look real. Hackers use this stolen information to steal your identity, make purchases, or commit fraud.

[ Option A ]

The pickle module in Python is used for serializing and deserializing Python objects.

• Serialization (pickling): Convert a Python object into a byte stream.
• Deserialization (unpickling): Convert a byte stream back into a Python object hierarchy.

[ Option C ]

In a 4-bit Johnson counter (also called a switch-tail ring counter), the total number of possible states is 2⁴=16. However, a Johnson counter produces only 2n unique states, where n is the number of flip-flops. For n=4, the number of valid states is 2×4=8. Therefore, the number of unused or invalid states is 16−8=8.

[ Option A ]

In JavaScript, the main difference between var and let lies in their scope. A variable declared with var has either global scope (if declared outside a function) or function scope (if declared inside a function). It does not follow block scope, meaning it can still be accessed outside the block { } in which it is defined.
On the other hand, a variable declared with let is block scoped, which means it is only accessible within the block { } where it is declared.
 

// Using var
if (true) {
    var x = 10;
}
console.log(x); // No Error, print 10 (var is not block scoped).
// Using let
if (true) {
    let y = 20;
}
console.log(y); // Error, y is not defined (let is block scoped).

[ Option B ]

TIFF stands for Tagged Image File Format. It is a flexible and high-quality image format used for storing photographs and scanned images.

• It supports lossless compression, meaning image quality is not reduced.
• Commonly used in publishing, printing, and professional photography.
• File extensions is .tif or .tiff

[ Option C ]

In Android, Content Providers are mainly used to share data between applications in a secure and structured way. They provide a standard interface for accessing and managing data like contacts, images, videos, etc., and apps can query or modify this data using URIs.

[ Option A ]

This program demonstrates call by value in C. When modify(x,y) is called, the values of x and y are copied into local variables a and b. Inside the function, a becomes 15 and b becomes 27, which are printed. However, changes to a and b do not affect the original variables in main, so x and y remain 5 and 7.

[ Option C ]

[ Option B ]

OLAP (Online Analytical Processing) systems are designed for complex analysis of large volumes of data. They are optimized for query performance and analytical operations, rather than for handling large numbers of concurrent users.

OLAP systems primarily involve read-only operations, such as slicing, dicing, and aggregating data, rather than frequent updates or inserts.

[ Option A ]

A recurrence relation is an equation that expresses the running time of a problem in terms of smaller instances of the same problem. It is used in the analysis of recursive algorithms because recursion naturally breaks a large problem into smaller subproblems.

By writing and solving the recurrence relation, we can calculate the overall time complexity of the algorithm in an exact and systematic way.

In the best case of Quick Sort, each partition splits the array into two equal halves. The partitioning step itself requires scanning the entire array once, which takes Θ(n) time. After this step, two recursive calls are made on subarrays of size n/2 each, giving 2T(n/2). Therefore, the recurrence relation can be expressed as T(n) = 2T(n/2) + Θ(n). By applying the Master Theorem to this recurrence, we find that the solution is T(n) = Θ(n log n).

[ Option C ]

Noise removal in data preprocessing aims to reduce errors or random variations in datasets.
SMOOTHING BY BIN MEANS: Replaces each value in a bin with the mean of the bin to reduce variability.
SMOOTHING BY BIN MEDIANS: Replaces each value with the median of the bin, which is robust to outliers.
SMOOTHING BY BIN BOUNDARIES: Replaces values with the closest boundary (min or max) of the bin to limit extreme values.

[ Option C ]

The Convoy Effect is a performance problem that occurs in CPU scheduling, especially in algorithms like First-Come, First-Served (FCFS). In this situation, a long CPU-Bound process gets the CPU first. Meanwhile, several I/O-Bound processes have to wait in the Ready Queue.

Since the CPU is busy executing the long process, the shorter I/O-bound processes are delayed. As a result, the CPU stays idle when those I/O-bound processes later perform I/O operations, and overall system utilization drops.

[ Option B ]

NTFS (New Technology File System) is the main file system used by Windows operating systems to store and organize data on hard drives. It is more advanced than FAT and FAT32 because it supports features like file permissions, encryption, compression, and large storage sizes.
An NTFS volume layout is divided into several main components that define how data is stored and accessed:

There is no component called “Master bytes” in the NTFS layout.

[ Option D ]

The worst-case time complexity of Selection Sort is O(n²). This is because, in every pass of the algorithm, the smallest (if sort in ascending order) or largest (if sort in descending order) element is selected from the unsorted portion of the array by scanning all remaining elements. This requires (n−1) comparisons in the first pass, (n−2) in the second pass, and so on, until only one element is left.
The total number of comparisons becomes (n−1)+(n−2)+...+1=n(n−1)/2, which simplifies to O(n²).

[ Option A ]

Given, Plaintext = SACKGAUL, but it says read from right to left, so we reverse it: LUAGKCAS. Now, the positions are:

[ Option D ]

Must Know:

• ANSI C (C89/C90): The original standardized C (1989/1990) has 32 keywords.
• C99: A standard introduced in 1999 that added new features like variable-length arrays, inline functions, new data types, and new keywords.
• C11: A standard introduced in 2011 with improvements for concurrency, memory alignment, and multithreading, also adding new keywords.
• C99 adds 5 new keywords namely, _Bool, _Complex, _Imaginary, inline, restrict.
• C11 adds 7 new keywords namely, _Alignas, _Alignof, _Atomic, _Generic, _Noreturn, _Static_assert, _Thread_local
• So, C89/C90: 32, C99: 32 + 5 = 37 and C11: 37 + 7 = 44 keywords.

[ Option C ]

A Deadlock is a situation in an operating system where two or more processes are waiting for each other indefinitely to release resources. For a deadlock to occur, four necessary conditions (Coffman’s conditions) must hold simultaneously.

Deadlock happens only when resources cannot be pre-empted. Therefore, Pre-emption itself is not a condition for deadlock. In fact, it helps prevent deadlock.

[ Option D ]

In this program, n1 is initialized with data 10 and n2 with data 20. Then n1.next is set to point to n2. In the printf statement, n1.data gives 10 and n1.next->data accesses the data of n2, which is 20. Their sum is 30, so the output is 30.

[ Option D ]

Swapping is a memory management technique used when the system’s main memory (RAM) becomes full. 
In a multitasking environment, several processes are loaded into memory, but sometimes there is not enough space for all of them. To handle this, the operating system temporarily moves some inactive processes from main memory to the hard disk (swap space). This process is called swapping out.

When the process is needed again, it is swapped back into memory, called swapping in. This allows the OS to manage limited memory more efficiently and ensures that active processes get enough memory to run.

[ Option B ]

In one’s complement representation, a negative number is obtained by inverting all the bits of its positive binary form. For (−8)₁₀, we first write +8 in 5-bit binary, which is (01000)₂. Now, by inverting each bit (all 0s become 1s and all 1s become 0s), we get (10111)₂. Hence, the one’s complement representation of (−8)₁₀ is (10111)₂.

[ Option B ]

In data communication, error detection and correction are essential for ensuring that transmitted data reaches the destination accurately. Most error control methods can only detect errors, while some can also correct them.
Hamming Code is a special type of code that can both detect and correct single-bit errors. It adds redundant bits called parity bits at specific positions in the data.

[ Option C ]

In the Awareness Stage of the customer journey, the goal is to introduce your brand or product to potential customers and provide educational or engaging content. At this stage, the audience is not yet ready to make a purchase, so hard-sell actions like buying a product or downloading detailed whitepapers are less effective.

• Inviting the audience to read blog posts, watch videos, or listen to podcast episodes.
• These actions help the audience learn about the brand or industry, building trust and engagement.

[ Option D ]

In network congestion control, there are two main approaches, Open-Loop and Closed-Loop control.
Open-Loop Congestion Control tries to prevent congestion before it happens. It uses policies set at the design or setup stage rather than reacting to network conditions. The Admission Policy, Discarding Policy, and Window Policy are example of open-loop control.
Closed-Loop Congestion Control, is reactive, it monitors the network and takes action when congestion is detected. The Choke Packet is an example of closed-loop control. It is a signal sent by the router to the source to slow down transmission when congestion occurs.

[ Option B ]

In wireless networking, IEEE 802.11 is the standard that defines Wi-Fi networks. Under this standard, a Basic Service Set (BSS) is the fundamental building block of a wireless LAN. There are two primary types of network configurations:
Infrastructure Mode : This setup includes a central Access Point (AP) that coordinates communication between wireless devices (stations). Multiple BSS can be interconnected via access points.
Ad hoc Mode (Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)) :This setup does not have an access point. Wireless devices communicate directly with each other, forming a temporary or decentralized network.

[ Option B ]

In DBMS, a Functional Dependency (FD) represents a relationship between two sets of attributes in a relation. It is written as X → Y, meaning that the value of attribute set X uniquely determines the value of attribute set Y.

A Trivial functional dependency is one that always holds true and does not provide any new information about the data. It occurs when the dependent attributes (Y) are already included in the determinant (X). In other words, if Y is a subset of X (Y ⊆ X), the dependency is called trivial.

• For example, dependencies like A → A, AB → A and ABC → AB are trivial because the right side is included within the left side.

[ Option B ]

[ Option B ]

In query optimization, expression equivalence rules help the DBMS simplify queries without changing their final result. Some operations like union (∪) and intersection (∩) are both commutative and associative.

• Commutative means their order does not affect the result. For example, A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
• Associative means their grouping does not matter. For example, (A ∪ B) ∪ C=A ∪ (B ∪ C) and (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).

The Projection (π) operation distributes over union, meaning π(A ∪ B) = π(A) ∪ π(B).
The Set Difference (−) is not commutative because A − B ≠ B − A.

[ Option C ]

A Thread is a lightweight unit of a process that allows multiple parts of a program to execute concurrently. There are two main types of threads.

1. User-Level Threads (ULTs).
2. Kernel-Level Threads (KLTs).

User-Level Threads (ULTs): 

• These threads are managed entirely by user-level thread libraries, not by the operating system kernel. 
• The thread creation, scheduling, and synchronization are handled in user space, which makes them faster and more efficient since no system calls are needed.
• If one user-level thread is blocked, the entire process gets blocked because the kernel is unaware of individual threads.

Kernel-Level Threads (KLTs):

• These threads are managed directly by the operating system kernel. Each thread is known to the OS, and the kernel handles scheduling and management. 
• This allows true parallel execution on multiprocessor systems, as the OS can assign different threads to different CPUs. 
• Creating and switching between kernel threads is slower because it involves System Calls and more overhead.
   

[ Option A ]

In Python, negative indexes count from the end of the list.

Positive Indexing starts from left to right:
Index:      0          1           2
Value: 'spam'  'Spam'  'SPAM!'
Negative Indexing start from right to left:
Index:    -3         -2          -1
Value: 'spam'  'Spam'  'SPAM!'

[ Option C ]

In an adjacency matrix, we represent a graph using a two-dimensional array of size n×n, where n is the number of vertices. Each row and column correspond to a vertex, and the value stored in a cell tells us whether an edge exists between two vertices.

If the graph is weighted, the cell stores the weight instead of just 0 or 1. Since the matrix always needs space for n² entries, the space complexity is O(n²). This representation can be used for directed or undirected graphs as well as weighted or unweighted graphs.

The only drawback is that it uses more memory for sparse graphs, but it provides quick access to check if an edge exists between two vertices.

[ Option D ]

[ Option A ]

System Software is a collection of programs designed to manage and support the operation of a computer system and to service other programs. It acts as a interface  between the hardware and application software. 

Examples of system software include the Operating System like Windows, Linux, macOS, Device Drivers, Utility Programs, and Language Translator like compiler, assembler, and interpreter.

[ Option A ]

Clustering approaches can be categorized based on how they form groups of data.

[ Option B ]

In public key cryptography, a Digital Signature is created by the sender using their private key (Sender Private Key). To verify that the signature is authentic and that the message has not been altered, the receiver uses the Sender’s Public Key. This ensures the signature was indeed generated by the sender and provides authentication and integrity.

[ Option A ]

Deadlock prevention schemes in databases use timestamp ordering to avoid cyclic waiting. Two popular timestamp-based methods are wait-die and wound-wait schemes.

In the wait-die scheme (non-preemptive), if an older transaction requests a resource held by a younger one, it is allowed to wait, otherwise, the younger transaction is rolled back.

The wound-wait scheme (preemptive) allows the older transaction to “wound” the younger one by forcing it to roll back immediately and release the resource. Because wait-die involves waiting (non-preemptive) and wound-wait involves forced rollback (preemptive).

[ Option A ]

A Firewall is a network security device or software that acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and an untrusted external network, like the internet.
Its main purpose is to monitor data packets entering or leaving the network and decide whether to allow or block them based on predefined security rules.

Firewalls help protect systems from hackers, viruses, and unauthorized access. They can be implemented using hardware, software, or both, depending on the system’s security needs. 
Firewalls ensure that only packets from trusted source addresses are allowed to enter the organization’s network.

[ Option A ]

In SQL, the LIKE operator is used with wildcard characters to match patterns in string data. The two main wildcards are:

In the given query, we need to find customer names where the second character is ‘P’ and the name ends with ‘A’.

• To make the second character ‘P’, we use an underscore (_) for the first character.
• Then, to allow any number of characters between ‘P’ and the ending ‘A’, we use the percent sign (%).
• Finally, to ensure the name ends with ‘A’, we write A at the end.

Thus, the correct pattern is '_P%A', which means, any first character (_), followed by ‘P’, then any number of characters (%), and ending with ‘A’.

[ Option D ]

In SQL, commands are categorized into DDL, DML, DQL, DCL and TCL based on their purpose.

[ Option D ]

In Unified Modeling Language (UML), classes, abstract classes, and interfaces are depicted using Rectangular Boxes divided into three horizontally into compartments.

• The top compartment contains the name of the class, abstract class, or interface.
• The middle compartment lists attributes (for classes and abstract classes).
• The bottom compartment lists methods or operations.

This standardized box notation applies to classes, abstract classes (often italicized names), and interfaces (sometimes labeled with «interface»).

[ Option A ]

In an operating system, multiple processes often request disk I/O operations at the same time. To manage these requests efficiently, the OS uses Disk Scheduling Algorithms, which decide the order in which the disk head (arm) moves to service requests. The main goal is to reduce Seek Time, which is the time taken by the disk arm to move to the track where data is located.

Among the given options, the Shortest-Service-Time-First (SSTF) algorithm selects the disk I/O request that is closest to the current position of the disk arm. This means the arm moves the least possible distance, which minimizes seek time and improves performance.

[ Option A ]

System Calls are special functions provided by the OS that allow user programs to request services from the kernel, such as process creation, file handling, or communication. 
In process management, three important system calls are fork(), wait(), and exec(), each serving a specific purpose in process control.

[ Option B ]

In data warehousing and OLAP, a cuboid represents a specific level of aggregation in a multidimensional cube.

The 0-D cuboid is the highest level of summarization, meaning it aggregates data across all dimensions, providing only a single summarized value for the entire dataset. This cuboid is also called the Apex Cuboid because it sits at the top of the aggregation lattice.

[ Option A ]

Smoothing by bin boundaries is a data cleaning technique used to reduce the effect of noise or outliers in a dataset. The process involves dividing data into bins and then replacing each value in a bin with the closest bin boundary value either minimum or maximum of the bin.
Given the data [4, 8, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 28, 34] and equal-frequency bins of size 3:

• Bin1: [4, 8, 15]
• Bin2: [21, 21, 24]
• Bin3: [25, 28, 34]

Smoothing by bin boundaries for Bin2:
Bin boundaries: Min = 21, Max = 24

Replace each value in Bin2 with the nearest boundary:

• 21 is closer to 21. So, 21
• 21 is closer to 21. So, 21
• 24 is closer to 24. So, 24

Finally, the smoothed Bin2 is [21,21,24].

[ Option D ]

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a link-state Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) used for routing within a single Autonomous System (AS), such as an organization or a campus network. It uses the link-state routing algorithm.

[ Option B ]

In IPv4, fragmentation could occur at both source and intermediate routers, meaning routers could break large packets into smaller fragments to fit the network’s Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU).

The IPv6 changed the approach to make packet handling faster and simpler. In IPv6, only the source node is allowed to perform fragmentation, and reassembly is done only at the destination, not at intermediate routers. 
If a router receives a packet larger than the MTU, it does not fragment the packet. Instead, it drops the packet and sends an ICMPv6 “Packet Too Big” error message back to the sender.

[ Option D ]

A Honeypot is a security mechanism used in Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) to attract attackers and study their behavior. It is designed to look like a real system containing valuable data or services, but it is actually a Decoy that isolates and monitors malicious activities. 

Honeypots help in diverting attackers’ attention away from critical systems and collecting information about their methods, tools, and intentions. 
However, Legitimate Users are not supposed to know about or access honeypots, as their purpose is purely for monitoring and deception.

[ Option B ]

[ Option C ]

As we know, structure variables in C are copied by value, not by reference. When struct info b = a; is executed, the value of a.x (10) is copied into b.x. Later, changing b.x = 20 does not affect a.x, which remains 10. Therefore, the output of the program is 10 20.

[ Option B ]

In software testing, the term Granularity refers to the level of detail or scope at which the software is tested. There are several recognized levels of testing techniques like unit testing, component testing, and system testing, each focusing on different parts of the system.
The Segment Testing is not a standard level of software testing. It is not formally recognized in the software testing process hierarchy.

[ Option A ]

In classification problems, evaluating the performance of a classifier involves several metrics, one of which is Precision. Precision measures the accuracy of positive predictions.
Mathematically, precision is defined as TP/(TP+FP).
Where:

• TP (True Positives): Number of correctly predicted positive instances.
• FP (False Positives): Number of instances incorrectly predicted as positive.

[ Option B ]

[ Option C ]

According to the Bell-LaPadula security model, a subject S is permitted to write to an object O only if the security classification of the subject satisfies the condition:
class(S)≤class(O)
This is known as the "No Write Down" or Star (*) Property rule, which prevents a subject from writing information to a lower security level object, thereby preventing potential information leakage from higher classified data to lower classification levels.

[ Option C ]

Eavesdropping is the act of secretly listening to or capturing private communication between two parties over a network. 
It is a type of network attack where an unauthorized person monitors data that is being transmitted between hosts. This can include listening to phone calls, reading emails, or intercepting messages exchanged over the internet.

[ Option C ]

The virtual address is 38 bits long, where 10 bits are for the page directory and 16 bits for the page table. Each page table entry is 4 bytes. So, the number of entries in a page table is 2¹⁶. Multiplying by 4 bytes gives 2¹⁸ bytes, which is equal to 256 KB. Hence, the maximum size of a page table is 256 KB.

[ Option D ]

E-commerce (Electronic Commerce) refers to buying and selling goods or services over the Internet. Depending on who is involved in the transaction, businesses, consumers, or governments, e-commerce can be divided into several types or models.

Amazon.com provides B2C E-commerce services, where businesses sell products directly to individual customers through an online marketplace.

[ Option A ]

In software design, Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between software modules. Means, how closely connected or dependent one module is on another. It is desirable to have the lowest possible coupling because loosely coupled modules can function independently, are easier to Test, Maintain, and Modify without affecting other parts of the system.

[ Option A ]

In this PHP program, the array $fruits contains four elements: "apple", "orange", a nested array ["pear", "mango"], and "banana". 
By default, the count() function in PHP counts only the top-level elements, which would give 4. However, since the program uses count($fruits, 1), the second parameter enables recursive counting, meaning elements inside nested arrays are also included in the count.
The nested array ["pear", "mango"] has 2 elements, so the total becomes 4 + 2 = 6. Therefore, the output of the program is 6.

[ Option D ]

The Valid-Invalid bit in a page table entry is used to check whether a page belongs to a process’s logical address space. If the bit is valid (1), the page is part of the process and can be accessed. If it is invalid (0), the page does not belong to the process, and any access attempt will cause a memory protection error. This mechanism helps the operating system prevent illegal memory access and ensures safe process isolation.

[ Option C ]

In a traditional File Processing system, data is stored in separate files for different applications. Since there is no central control or integration like in a Database Management System (DBMS), several problems can occur.

[ Option D ]

[ Option B ]

In SQL, the COUNT() function is an aggregate function used to determine the number of records in a table. It can be used in different forms, such as COUNT(*), COUNT(Column_Name), and COUNT(DISTINCT Column_Name).
When we use COUNT(*), it counts all rows in the specified table, regardless of whether any column contains a NULL value. This means it simply counts the total number of entries present.
In the query SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;, the database counts all the rows in the employees table, including those having NULL values in one or more columns.

[ Option B ]

A Boot Virus is a type of computer virus that infects the boot sector of a storage device or the key operating system files that help a computer start. When the infected computer is turned on, the virus is automatically loaded into memory before the operating system starts.

A Worm is a self-replicating malicious program that spreads without needing to attach itself to any file or program. Unlike ordinary viruses, worms can travel automatically through networks and the internet.

Zombies are computers that have been secretly infected with malicious software and are controlled remotely by a hacker, often without the owner’s knowledge. These compromised machines are used to perform tasks such as sending spam emails, spreading viruses, or participating in large-scale network attacks.

A Denial-of-Service (DoS) attack is an attempt by an attacker to make a computer or network service unavailable to its users. In this attack, the hacker sends a massive number of requests or data packets to a target server or website.

[ Option D ]

The given output expression is Y=A′+B′+C′. By applying De Morgan’s law, this can be rewritten as Y=(A⋅B⋅C)′. This form directly represents the operation of a NAND gate, since a NAND gate produces the complement of the AND operation.

[ Option B ]

Stress Testing is a type of non-functional testing that evaluates how a system behaves under extreme or abnormal conditions.

• The main goal of stress testing is to determine the breaking point of the system and to ensure that it can handle heavy load conditions without crashing or losing data. 
• It helps identify performance bottlenecks, memory leaks, or stability issues that might appear only under intense workloads.

[ Option C ]

According to Nyquist’s theorem, the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel depends on its bandwidth (B) and the number of discrete signal levels (V) used in transmission.
Maximum Data Rate = 2B log₂V bits per second

• B is bandwidth of the channel in hertz (Hz).
• V is number of discrete signal levels.

[ Option D ]

In data warehousing, data transformation is the process of converting data from its original form into a format suitable for analysis.

• Normalization: Scaling numeric data to a common range to eliminate bias due to magnitude differences.
• Discretization: Converting continuous attributes into categorical or discrete intervals.
• Attribute Construction: Creating new attributes from existing ones to provide more meaningful features for analysis.

[ Option A ]

Must Know:

• A sorting algorithm is called stable if it preserves the relative order of equal elements in the sorted output. For example, suppose we have a list of students with (Name, Marks) as, (Ramesh, 90), (Salman, 80), (Mahesh, 90). If we sort them by Marks, a stable sort will keep (Ramesh, 90) before (Mahesh, 90) in the result, since Ramesh appeared before Mahesh in the original list.
• Space Complexity tells us how much extra memory the algorithm needs apart from the input data.
• O(1) Space Complexity : Means the algorithm uses constant extra space, no matter how big the input. So, O(1) is very memory efficient, uses only a few extra variables.
• O(n) Space Complexity : Means the algorithm uses extra space proportional to the input size. So, O(n) uses extra memory, creates new arrays or data structures.

[ Option D ]

In Internet communication, different protocols and standards are used for specific purposes.

[ Option B ]

The <embed> tag in HTML is used to embed multimedia content such as audio, video, or interactive applications. It is a self-closing tag and requires attributes like src, type, width, and height to define the media.
<embed src="video.mp4" type="video/mp4" width="400" height="300">
The <embed> tag differs from <audio> and <video> tags in modern HTML5.

• The <embed> tag is generic tag (general multimedia embedding) and used for various types of media such as audio, video, PDF, Flash, etc.
• The <audio> tag is specially designed for audio playback with built-in controls.
• The <video> tag is specially designed for video playback with built-in controls.
   

[ Option B ]

The software testing process follows a logical and structured sequence to ensure that the program is tested accurately and efficiently.

[ Option A ]

Frame Relay and ATM both are data communication technologies used for transferring data across networks.
Frame Relay sends data in the form of frames, which are variable-length packets. This means the size of the frame can change depending on the amount of data being transmitted.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), on the other hand, transmits data in fixed-size packets called cells. Each cell is 53 bytes long (48 bytes of data + 5 bytes of header).

[ Option C ]

The K-Means algorithm works by repeatedly assigning data points to clusters and updating the cluster centroids until convergence. The time complexity of K-Means is approximately, O(n × K × I × d).
Where,
n = number of data points.
K = number of clusters.
I = number of iterations.
d = number of dimensions.

[ Option D ]

In memory management, different techniques are used to load and manage processes in main memory.

• In Simple Segmentation, a process is divided into segments like code, data, and stack, and all of them are loaded into dynamic memory partitions, which do not have to be next to each other.
• In Virtual Memory Paging, a process is divided into fixed-size pages, but not all pages are loaded at once, only the needed pages are brought into memory later.
• In Virtual Memory Segmentation, a process is divided into segments, and only the required ones are loaded when needed, similar to virtual paging.
• In Simple Paging, all the pages of a process are loaded into available frames, even if those frames are not contiguous.

[ Option D ]

Bipolar:

• RTL (Resistor-Transistor Logic)
• DTL (Diode-Transistor Logic) 
• TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) 
• ECL (Emitter-Coupled Logic) 
• IIL (Integrated Injection Logic)

Unipolar:

• NMOS (N-type Metal Oxide Semiconductor) 
• PMOS (P-type Metal Oxide Semiconductor) 
• CMOS (Complementary MOS)

Note:

Bipolar families use BJTs (Bipolar Junction Transistors), while unipolar families use MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FETs) as switching devices.

[ Option B ]

In the TCP header, the HLEN (Header Length) field indicates the length of the TCP header. The minimum header length is 20 bytes when no options are used. The HLEN field is 4 bits long, and its value tells how many 4-byte words are in the header.
Now,
HLEN = 0111 (binary) = 7 (decimal)
So, total TCP header length = 7 × 4 = 28 bytes
Since the standard TCP header (without options) is 20 bytes, the extra part = 28 – 20 = 8 bytes, which corresponds to the options field.

[ Option D ]

The Apriori algorithm is a popular method for mining frequent itemsets in a dataset. Since generating candidate itemsets and scanning the database repeatedly can be computationally expensive, several techniques are used to improve its efficiency:

[ Option C ]

In Android, Intents are used as a messaging object that allows communication between different components of an app such as Activities, Services, and Broadcast Receivers, or even between different apps.
Intents can be used to start a new activity, launch a service, deliver a broadcast, or request an action like opening a web page or sharing content.

[ Option D ]

The binary fraction (0.10101)₂ is converted to decimal by multiplying each digit with 2⁻ⁿ, where n is the position after the decimal point. Thus, it becomes 1×2⁻¹ + 0×2⁻² + 1×2⁻³ + 0×2⁻⁴ + 1×2⁻⁵. This equals 0.5 + 0 + 0.125 + 0 + 0.03125 = 0.65625. Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (0.10101)₂ is (0.65625)₁₀.

[ Option B ]

The loop starts with i = 2 and should print even numbers up to 10. To achieve this, we need to increase i by 2 in every iteration. Hence, using i+=2 ensures the loop prints 2 4 6 8 10.

[ Option C ]

In SQL, a column defined as NUMERIC(3, 1) can store a total of three digits, out of which one digit is reserved for the decimal part and the remaining two for the integer part. Hence, valid numbers range approximately from –99.9 to 99.9. Among the given options, only 44.5 satisfies these conditions.
So, in SQL,

• p (Precision) : Total number of digits (both left and right of the decimal).
• s  (Scale) : Number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

So, for NUMERIC(3, 1):

• Total digits allowed : 3
• Digits after decimal : 1
• Therefore, digits before decimal = 3 − 1 = 2
• Thus, the maximum value that can be stored is 99.9, and the minimum is -99.9.

[ Option A ]

In an Operating System (OS), the kernel dispatcher (scheduler) is responsible for managing CPU time among different threads or processes. It decides which thread should run next based on their state and priority.
Threads in an OS can be in different states such as Ready, Running, Waiting (Blocked), or Terminated. The Ready state means that the thread is prepared to run and is waiting for CPU allocation.
The Kernel dispatcher maintains a Ready Queue, which contains all the ready threads. It selects one thread from this queue based on priority and assigns it the CPU.

[ Option A ]

In SQL (Structured Query Language), a view is a virtual table that is created based on the result of a query. It does not store data physically.
To create a view, we use the CREATE VIEW command followed by the view name and a SELECT query that determines the view's contents.

Syntax:

CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

[ Option C ]

A Q-Q plot is used to compare two distributions by plotting the quantiles of one distribution against the corresponding quantiles of another. If the points fall roughly along a straight line, the distributions are similar. Q-Q plots are commonly used to check whether data follows a theoretical distribution or to compare two datasets.

[ Option A ]

In the generic process framework for software engineering, the software development process is divided into several important activities, each having a specific purpose.
Communication : This is the first step of software development where interaction takes place between developers and customers. The goal is to understand what the customer needs. Therefore, it involves requirement gathering and analysis.
Planning : After gathering requirements, the next step is to plan the project activities. This includes identifying risks, resources, and schedules to ensure the project is completed on time and within budget.
Construction : This phase involves Coding and Testing of the software. Developers write the actual code and then test it to make sure it functions correctly and meets requirements.
Deployment : After successful testing, the software is delivered to the customer, and feedback is collected for future improvements.

[ Option A ]

Kruskal’s algorithm is a greedy algorithm used to find the Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) of a connected, weighted graph. It works by sorting all the edges of the graph in non-decreasing order of their weights. Then, it iteratively adds the smallest edge to the MST, provided that adding the edge does not create a cycle in the growing tree.

The algorithm continues until the MST has exactly V−1 edges, where V is the number of vertices. 

Unlike Prim’s algorithm, which grows the MST from a starting vertex, Kruskal’s algorithm builds the MST by focusing on edges first, ensuring the final tree has the minimum total weight.

Must Know:
Non-decreasing order of their weight means the edges are arranged from smallest weight to largest weight, but equal weights are allowed to appear next to each other. For example, if the edge weights are [6, 2, 9, 4, 2], then sorted in non-decreasing order they become [2, 2, 4, 6, 9].

[ Option D ]

When a client (web browser) sends a request to a web server using the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), the server responds with a status code. These codes tell whether the request was successful, redirected, failed, or caused an error. HTTP status codes are divided into five main categories:

Status code 400 in the HTTP protocol means "Bad Request". This error occurs when the server cannot process a request because the client has sent data that is invalid, malformed, or cannot be understood.

[ Option B ]

The /proc file system in Linux is a virtual file system that provides information about the system’s processes and kernel in real time. It does not exist on the disk like regular files, instead, it resides in kernel memory and is generated dynamically when accessed.
The /proc directory contains files and folders that represent system information such as CPU usage, memory details, running processes, and kernel parameters.

[ Option A ]

A plain text message can be hidden or protected in two main ways.
Steganography is a technique used to hide secret messages or data within another file, such as an image, audio, or video, in such a way that its existence is not apparent to others. 
For example, a confidential message can be hidden inside the pixel values (modifying the Least Significant Bits (LSBs) of the Pixels) of an image file without noticeably changing the image itself.

Cryptography transforms plaintext into ciphertext via encryption, rendering the content unintelligible to outsiders without the decryption key.

[ Option C ]

The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to convert domain names (www.surakuacademy.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand. DNS mainly communicates over the Internet using two transport layer protocols:

1. UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
2. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).

For most regular DNS queries, UDP is used because it is fast and efficient. Since DNS requests and responses are usually small (less than 512 bytes), using UDP avoids the extra time needed to establish a connection, making it ideal for quick lookups such as finding the IP address of a website.
DNS also uses TCP in specific cases where reliability is required. When a DNS response exceeds 512 bytes, during zone transfers between servers, or if a UDP query fails, TCP provides a reliable, connection-oriented transfer. 
In short, DNS uses UDP for speed and TCP for reliability and large data transfers, ensuring both efficiency and accuracy.
 

[ Option D ]

The IP address 172.16.0.0/19 belongs to Class B, where the default subnet mask is /16 (255.255.0.0). Here, /19 means 3 extra bits are borrowed for subnetting (19 − 16 = 3).
Number of subnets = 2³ = 8 subnets
Number of host bits = 32 − 19 = 13 bits

Therefore, the number of valid hosts per subnet is 2¹³ − 2 = 8190, where 2 is subtracted for the network and broadcast addresses. Hence, the network 172.16.0.0/19 provides 8 subnets, each containing 8190 valid hosts.

[ Option C ]

[ Option A ]

In RSA encryption, we are given P = 7, Q = 17, public key e = 5, and plaintext M = 10.
First, calculate n = P × Q = 7 × 17 = 119 and φ(n) = (P - 1) × (Q - 1) = 6 × 16 = 96.
The public key pair is therefore (5, 119). Using the encryption formula C = M^e mod n, we get C = 10⁵ mod 119 = 40.

[ Option C ]

[ Option A ]

A Minimal Cover or Canonical Cover for a set of functional dependencies is an equivalent set where every dependency has a single attribute on the right-hand side, every left-hand side has no extraneous attribute, and no dependency is redundant.

[ Option B ]

The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to translate human-readable website names (www.surakuacademy.com) into IP addresses that computers use to communicate. The Domain Name Space is organized like an inverted tree structure, where:

The Domain Name Space allows multiple levels in this hierarchy, each level represents one “LABEL” (a part between dots). According to DNS standards (RFC 1035), the maximum number of levels allowed in a domain name is 128 including the root.

[ Option C ]

Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors or defects in a program after they have been discovered during testing. It is different from Testing, because testing helps detect the presence of errors, while debugging helps locate and remove them.

[ Option B ]

The main intent of information hiding is to protect the internal details of a module, such as data structures and algorithms. 
By hiding the internal implementation, changes made inside a module do not affect other modules that depend on it. This leads to better modularity, maintainability, and security of the software.

[ Option C ]

Verification is the process of checking whether the software is being built correctly according to design documents, specifications, and plans. It focuses on ensuring that each function, logic, and module is correctly implemented before the product is completed.

Validation is the process of checking whether the final software product meets customer needs and expectations. It ensures that the system performs the intended functions in the actual working environment and satisfies all user requirements.

[ Option B ]

Under-sampling is a technique used to address class imbalance in a training dataset. When one class significantly outnumbers the other class, under-sampling reduces the number of instances in the majority class to match the number of instances in the minority class.
In this case:

• Original dataset, 100 positive tuples, 1000 negative tuples.
• After under-sampling, the majority class (negative) is reduced to 100 tuples, equal to the minority class.
• The new training set contains 100 positive and 100 negative tuples, making the dataset balanced for training.

[ Option D ]

In an Operating System (OS) that uses virtual memory, physical memory (RAM) is divided into fixed-size blocks called frames, and logical memory is divided into pages. When a program tries to access a page that is not currently in memory, a page fault occurs.
At this time, the OS needs to bring the required page from the disk into main memory. To do this efficiently, the OS maintains a Free-Frame List, which is a list of all the empty frames available in physical memory.
When a page fault happens, the OS selects a free frame from this list, loads the required page into it, and updates the page table.

So, the free-frame list helps the operating system know which parts of memory are empty so it can quickly allocate space whenever a new page needs to be loaded due to a page fault.

[ Option C ]

A Utility-Based Agent in AI (Artificial Intelligence) goes beyond just achieving a goal. Unlike a Goal-Based Agent, which only decides whether a goal is achieved, a utility-based agent evaluates multiple possible actions using a utility function.
The utility function assigns a numeric value to each possible state, reflecting how “Good” or “Satisfactory” that state is.

[ Option B ]

When we access a webpage or any resource on the Internet, we use an address that tells the computer where to find it. This address is called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). It includes several parts such as the protocol, host computer, port, and path.
URL example, https://www.surakuacademy.com/rpsc-vice-principal-iti-information-technology-paper-solution

[ Option D ]

In software engineering, interface design focuses on defining how different parts of a system interact with each other and with external entities. It ensures smooth communication between components, users, and external systems. The main elements of interface design include, User Interface (UI), External Interfaces, and Internal Interfaces.
The Modularity refers to the division of a system into smaller, independent components  or modules to improve maintainability, reusability, and clarity.

[ Option C ]

In an Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram, Total Participation means that every entity in an entity set must participate in a given relationship.

To represent this, we use a Double Line between the entity set and the relationship set. This indicates that the participation of the entity is mandatory or required or total.

[ Option A ]

In Linux, processes often need to communicate and share data with each other, this is called Interprocess Communication (IPC). Linux provides several IPC mechanisms like pipes, message queues, shared memory, and semaphores.

The semctl system call is used to control and manage semaphores, which are synchronization tools that help processes coordinate access to shared resources.

[ Option B ]

Each URL starts with a scheme name (like http, https, mailto, ftp, etc.), which defines the protocol or method used to handle the request. Different schemes are used for different purposes, such as opening a web page, sending an email, or streaming a video.

[ Option D ]

An Expert System is a type of Artificial Intelligence (AI) program designed to mimic human expert reasoning in a specific domain. It uses a knowledge base (containing expert facts and rules) and an inference engine (which applies logic to that knowledge) to solve complex problems that normally require human expertise.
Expert systems are most useful in areas that involve logical reasoning, pattern recognition, and decision-making based on well-defined rules.

However, Decoupling is not a problem area where expert systems provide assistance. Decoupling refers to separating interconnected components or systems to reduce dependency, commonly used in engineering, programming, or system design, not in reasoning-based problem solving.

[ Option A ]

In a Database Management System (DBMS), Keys are attributes or sets of attributes used to uniquely identify each tuples (rows) in a table (relation).
In a relational database, a Super Key is any set of attributes that uniquely identifies tuples, but it may contain extra attributes.
A Candidate Key is a minimal super key, meaning no subset of it can be a super key.

Among candidate keys, one is chosen as the Primary Key to uniquely identify tuples but it is not chosen based on the number of attributes. It is usually selected for simplicity, stability, and efficiency, not because it has the highest number of attributes.
So, statements I and II correctly describe Super Key and Candidate Key, while III is incorrect because the primary key is not selected based on attribute count.