RPSC Vice Principal ITI CSE Solved Questions

[ Option A ]

A Checksum is a simple method used in data communication to detect errors in transmitted messages. The basic idea is to sum the numerical values of all data units using one’s complement arithmetic (end-around carry) , and then taking the one’s complement of the final sum. 
End-around carry means add MSB carry-out back into LSB for one’s-complement addition.

• ASCII characters are combined two at a time: the first byte as the high-order byte and the second as the low-order byte of each 16-bit word.
• For "RPSC", ASCII Hex Codes: R = 0x52, P = 0x50, S = 0x53, C = 0x43.
• Form 16-bit words: RP → 0x5250, SC → 0x5343.
• Sum: 0x5250 + 0x5343 = 0xA593; no carry beyond 16 bits, so end-around carry not needed.
• One’s complement: Invert 0xA593 → 0x5A6C. Therefore, the 16-bit checksum is 5A6C.

[ Option B ]

The fork() System Call
The fork() system call in C is used to create a new process by duplicating the existing one.
After a fork() call, there are two processes running the same code, the parent process and the child process. Each process continues execution from the point where the fork() was called. So, if you call fork() multiple times, the number of processes increases exponentially.

There is no loop, and each fork() doubles the number of processes. Hence, total “Hello” prints = 2^{number of forks} 
Finally, 2² = 4.
 

[ Option B ]

In GSM architecture, the Home Location Register (HLR) is a central database that stores permanent subscriber information, such as the subscriber’s profile, services, and current location. When a subscriber roams into a new area, the Visitor Location Register (VLR) temporarily stores a local copy of the subscriber’s data from the HLR.

[ Option A ]

SQL Injection is a malicious technique in which attackers provide crafted input to SQL queries, tricking the database into executing unintended commands. This can lead to unauthorized data access, modification, or deletion. It is a major security concern for databases connected to web applications.

[ Option C ]

To find the probability that a triangle formed by choosing three vertices of a regular hexagon is equilateral, we proceed step by step.
Step 1: Total number of triangles
A hexagon has 6 vertices. The number of ways to choose any 3 vertices to form a triangle is calculated using combinations:
C(6,3) = 20
So, there are 20 possible triangles in total.
Step 2: Favorable outcomes (Equilateral Triangles)
In a regular hexagon, an equilateral triangle can be formed by choosing every second vertex. Label the vertices as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 clockwise. The equilateral triangles possible are:
Triangle (1, 3, 5)
Triangle (2, 4, 6)
Thus, there are 2 favorable triangles.
Step 3: Probability
The probability is given by:
P = Favorable outcomes / Total outcomes = 2 / 20 = 1/10

[ Option B ]

[ Option D ]

Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands are portions of the radio spectrum reserved internationally for non-commercial purposes like industrial heating, medical equipment, and scientific experimentation. Over time, they have also been widely used for unlicensed wireless communication, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

[ Option B ]

The FURPS (Functionality, Usability, Reliability, Performance, Supportability) Model, developed by Hewlett-Packard (HP), is a well-known framework used to classify software quality attributes.

[ Option A ]

The full form of SDRAM is Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. SDRAM is a type of dynamic RAM that is synchronized with the system clock, meaning it waits for the clock signal to perform read or write operations. This synchronization improves speed and efficiency compared to conventional DRAM.
Additionally, SDRAM can pipeline commands, allowing multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously.

[ Option D ]

The EX-NOR (Exclusive-NOR) gate is the complement of the EX-OR (Exclusive-OR) gate. While an EX-OR gate gives output 1 when the inputs are different, the EX-NOR gate gives output 1 when the inputs are the same that means, both inputs are 0 or both are 1.

The Boolean expression for an EX-NOR gate is:
Y=A⊙B = (A⊕B)’ =  A.B+A’B’

[ Option B ]

An Interrupt is a signal that temporarily halts the CPU’s current execution to handle an event. Interrupts are classified into internal and external types:

• Internal Interrupts (also called traps or exceptions) occur due to errors or specific conditions within the CPU, such as divide by zero or invalid opcode.
• External Interrupts are generated by external devices, like keyboards, timers, or power failures.

A divide-by-zero operation is an error generated by the CPU itself, so it is an internal interrupt.

[ Option C ]

UML stands for Unified Modeling Language, a standardized visual language used to model, design, and document software systems.

[ Option B ]

When an IP address is written with CIDR notation, such as 205.16.37.39/28, it tells us that the first 28 bits represent the network part, and the remaining 4 bits represent the host part of the address. 
Since 4 bits are reserved for hosts, the total number of addresses in this subnet is 2⁴=16. These addresses include both the network address and the broadcast address.

To find the exact block range, we must identify where the given IP (205.16.37.39) falls. Subnets with a /28 prefix have a block size of 16, and the subnets start at multiples of 16 in the last octet. Thus, the valid subnet ranges in the fourth octet are 0–15, 16–31, 32–47, 48–63, and so on. The number 39 lies between 32 and 47, which means the network address is 205.16.37.32.

Since the subnet contains 16 addresses, they run sequentially from 205.16.37.32 to 205.16.37.47. The first address 205.16.37.32 is reserved as the network address, and the last address 205.16.37.47 is reserved as the broadcast address for this subnet.

[ Option C ]

[ Option A ]

Compile-time polymorphism in C++ means the decision about which function to invoke is made during compilation, not at runtime. There are two main features in C++ that support compile-time polymorphism:

• Function overloading
  • Templates
• Operator overloading

Templates enable generic programming, where functions or classes can work with different data types without being rewritten. The compiler generates code at compile-time for each data type used, which is compile-time polymorphism.

[ Option C ]

Agile is a software development methodology that emphasizes iterative development, flexibility, and customer collaboration. Unlike traditional methods like the Waterfall Model, where all requirements are defined upfront and changes are costly, agile allows teams to deliver software in small increments, gather continuous feedback, and adapt to changing requirements.
Agile works best in situations where requirements are not fully known at the start, projects are small to medium in size, and frequent customer involvement is possible.
In contrast, Waterfall is more suitable for projects that are large, heavily regulated, or hardware-oriented, where sequential and structured development is necessary.
 

[ Option A ]

In wireless networking, IEEE 802.11 is the standard that defines Wi-Fi networks. Under this standard, a Basic Service Set (BSS) is the fundamental building block of a wireless LAN. There are two primary types of network configurations:

Infrastructure Mode : This setup includes a central Access Point (AP) that coordinates communication between wireless devices (stations). Multiple BSS can be interconnected via access points.

Ad hoc Mode (Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)) :This setup does not have an access point. Wireless devices communicate directly with each other, forming a temporary or decentralized network. 
Ad hoc networks are typically used for small, temporary networks where no central infrastructure exists, like in Peer-to-Peer connections.

[ Option B ]

Paging is a memory management technique that divides physical memory into fixed-size blocks called frames and logical memory into blocks of the same size called pages. Pages are mapped to frames using a page table, allowing non-contiguous allocation of memory.

[ Option B ]

The Rational Unified Process (RUP) is a widely used modern software process model that organizes software development into a series of phases to improve control, predictability, and quality. RUP defines four main phases:

1. Inception: Establishes the scope, objectives, and feasibility of the project.
2. Elaboration: Focuses on analyzing requirements in detail and creating the system architecture.
3. Construction: Involves the actual development and coding of the system, building the software incrementally.
4. Transition: Ensures that the system is deployed to the user environment, tested in real conditions, and all issues are addressed.

[ Option A ]

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a digital cellular technology that combines multiple access techniques to efficiently use the available radio spectrum.

GSM uses Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to divide the available frequency bands into separate channels, and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) to divide each frequency channel into time slots that can be shared by multiple users.

[ Option A ]

Memorization is a key technique used in dynamic programming to improve efficiency by:

• Saving the results of expensive function calls.
• Reusing those saved results when the same sub-problem occurs again.

In  other word, instead of recalculating the result every time, we "memorize" (store) it — typically using an array, map, or hash table.
 

[ Option B ]

Here, fun() in the base class is virtual, which means if a base class pointer points to a derived class object, the derived class function will be called.

[ Option B ]

We use the Handshaking Theorem, which states that the sum of the degrees of all vertices in an undirected graph equals twice the number of edges:
Sum of degrees of all vertices=2×Number of edges
Here, E=31. So,
Sum of degrees = Sum of degrees=2×31=62
The given condition is that each vertex has degree at least 3. Now, let the number of vertices be n. Then, Sum of degrees ≥ 3n. We already know the exact sum is 62, so, 3n ≤ 62.
Finally solve for n, n ≤ 62/3 = 20.66. Since the number of vertices must be an integer, the maximum possible number of vertices is 20.

[ Option A ]

C++ resolves function overloading based on the exact match of argument types. In this case, max(2.3, 6.8) passes two double values, so the compiler selects the function double max(double a, double b). Since the argument types match exactly, there is no ambiguity or type conversion required.

[ Option A ]

Disk scheduling algorithms decide the order in which I/O requests are serviced to minimize disk head movement. Two common algorithms are:
SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First):

• Selects the request closest to the current head position.
• Reduces total head movement but can cause starvation for far-away requests.

SCAN (Elevator Algorithm):

• The disk head moves in one direction, servicing all requests until it reaches the end, then reverses direction.
• Provides more uniform wait times and avoids starvation.

[ Option D ]

RAID is a storage technology that combines multiple physical disks into a single logical unit to improve performance and reliability (fault tolerance). Key characteristics of RAID include:

• Data Striping: Distributing data across multiple disks to improve read/write performance.
• Redundancy/Parity: Using extra disk space to store parity or mirrored data for fault tolerance.
• Logical View: The OS treats the RAID array as a single logical drive, even though it consists of multiple physical drives.

[ Option C ]

Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric key block cipher widely used for secure data transmission. 

• In DES, the input block size is 64 bits, meaning the plaintext is divided into 64-bit blocks before encryption. 
• The key size is 56 bits, although the original key is 64 bits long, 8 bits are used for parity and do not contribute to the actual encryption. 
• The output block size is also 64 bits, so each 64-bit plaintext block is transformed into a 64-bit ciphertext block. 

This design allows secure encryption and decryption using the same 56-bit key.
 

[ Option B ]

Virtual Memory is a memory management technique that gives an application the illusion of having a large, continuous block of memory, even though it may be physically fragmented or partially stored on disk.

[ Option C ]

[ Option D ]

In a relational database, a Super Key is any set of attributes that uniquely identifies tuples, but it may contain extra attributes and hence is not always minimal.
A Candidate Key is a minimal super key, meaning no subset of it can be a super key. Among candidate keys, one is chosen as the Primary Key to uniquely identify tuples.
Since the Primary Key itself is a candidate key, it cannot be a proper subset of another candidate key.

[ Option A ]

[ Option C ]

To see which dependencies follow from the given ones, compute attribute closures using the given FDs: P→QR and RS→T. If an attribute set’s closure contains the right-hand side, that dependency is implied.
(a) 

P→R
Find P⁺ :
P⁺ = {P}
P⁺={P,Q,R} Using P→QR
R is in P+ ⇒ P→R inferred.
(b)

PS → T
Find PS⁺ :
(PS)⁺={P,S}
(PS)⁺={P,S,Q,R} Using P → QR
Now, (PS)⁺ has RS so Using RS→T
(PS)⁺={P,S,Q,R,T}
T is in (PS)⁺ ⇒ PS → T inferred.
(c)

R→T
Find R⁺ : 
R⁺ = {R}
No dependency with just R, so cannot go further.
T is not in R⁺ ⇒ R→T cannot be inferred.
(d)

PS → Q
Find PS⁺ : 
(PS)⁺ = {P,S)
(PS)⁺ = {P,S,Q,R) Using P→QR
Now, (PS)⁺ has RS so Using RS→T
(PS)⁺={P,S,Q,R,T}
Q is in (PS)⁺ ⇒ PS → Q inferred.

[ Option C ]

In text normalization, Lemmatization reduces words to their base or dictionary form. For instance, words like “better”, “best”, and “good” can all be lemmatized to “good”, depending on context. Similarly, “studying”, “studies”, and “studied” are mapped to “study”. This process helps in natural language processing by treating different forms of the same word as a single entity.

[ Option D ]

The best-case time complexity of Quick Sort occurs when the pivot divides the array into two equal halves at every recursive step.

[ Option B ]

The function Xhandler(int test) checks if test is non-zero. If test is non-zero, it throws test as an exception. The catch (int i) block catches the integer exception and prints "Hello# : " followed by the value of i. If test is zero, no exception is thrown, so nothing is printed.
In main():

• Xhandler(1); throws 1 : Prints "Hello# : 1"
• Xhandler(0); no throw : Prints Nothing
• Xhandler(3); throws 3 : Prints "Hello# : 3"
• Xhandler(2); throws 2 : Prints "Hello# : 2"

[ Option D ]

In an Operating System, the CPU scheduling process involves three levels of schedulers:

1. Long-Term Scheduler, decides which processes are admitted to the ready queue (controls degree of multiprogramming).
2. Short-Term Scheduler, selects which ready process gets CPU next.
3. Medium-Term Scheduler, temporarily suspends or swaps out processes from main memory to secondary storage (and brings them back later) to manage memory efficiently.

• It comes into action when the system needs to reduce the degree of multiprogramming.
• It does this by swapping out processes (moving them from main memory to disk) and swapping them back later when memory becomes available.

[ Option C ]

In IPv4, when a packet is too large to be transmitted in one piece, it may be fragmented into smaller packets. Each fragment carries two important fields:

1. Fragment Offset indicates the position of the fragment’s data in the original packet.
2. MF (More Fragments) flag indicates whether more fragments follow (1 indicates more fragments, 0 indicates last fragment).

If a packet has Fragment Offset = 0 and MF = 0, it means that there are no fragments before or after it. A Fragment Offset of 0 shows it is the first fragment, but since MF = 0 indicates no more fragments, the packet must be unfragmented and sent as a single complete datagram.

[ Option A ]

In a paging system, the logical address space is divided into fixed-size pages, and a page table maps each logical page to a physical frame in memory. In this problem, the system has a 32-bit logical address space, which means it can address 2³² bytes.
The page size is given as 4 KB, which is 2¹² bytes. To find the number of pages, we divide the total logical address space by the page size: 2³²/ 2¹²=2²⁰.
Since each page requires one entry in the page table, the page table will contain 2²⁰ entries.

[ Option B ]

In digital communication, Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal (sine wave) to transmit data. Digital modulation schemes often use two or more carriers, which can vary in amplitude, phase, or frequency to represent binary information.

A Constellation Diagram is a graphical representation of these modulated signals on a 2D plane, where the x-axis represents the in-phase component (I) and the y-axis represents the quadrature component (Q). Each point in the diagram corresponds to a unique amplitude and phase combination, allowing engineers to visualize the transmitted symbols and detect errors.

[ Option A ]

In C++, the symbol << is used in two ways: it works as an output operator (also called the insertion or put-to operator) when used with cout, and as a bitwise left shift operator when it appears between two numeric values.

A bitwise left shift moves the bits of a number to the left by a certain number of positions. In the statement cout << "FIRST" << (a << 2) << "SECOND";, the part (a << 2) is calculated like this, since a = 5, its binary form is 0000 0101. When we shift the bits two places to the left, it becomes 0001 0100, which equals 20 in decimal. So, (a << 2) gives the value 20.

Finally, when substituted into the output statement, it becomes cout << "FIRST" << 20 << "SECOND";, which displays the text FIRST20SECOND on the screen. Note that there are no spaces unless explicitly added.

[ Option C ]

• If you do not write a destructor, the compiler generates a default destructor, which is public and empty.
• A destructor is a special member function of a class that is automatically called when an object goes out of scope or is deleted using delete. The purpose of destructor is to clean up resources (like memory, file handles, network connections, etc.) that the object was using.
• Generally, a custom destructor is required when a class allocates memory using the new operator, opens files or databases, or acquires other system resources. In such cases, it is necessary to release these resources. If they are not released properly, it can lead to memory leaks or resource leaks, which may cause the program to slow down or crash.

[ Option C ]

A Dequeue stands for Double Ended Queue. It is a linear data structure where:

• Insertions and deletions can occur at both ends (front and rear).
• No insertion or deletion is allowed in the middle.

In priority queue, elements are inserted in any order but removed based on priority, not position.
The threaded binary tree is type of binary tree optimized for in-order traversal, not a linear list.
The linked list allows insertions and deletions at any position, including the middle.

[ Option C ]

A drawer contains 12 red and 12 blue socks, all unmatched. To ensure at least 2 blue socks are drawn, we consider the worst-case scenario, where all red socks are drawn first. There are 12 red socks, so after drawing all of them, we still have 0 blue socks. 

The next two socks drawn must be blue since only blue socks remain. Therefore, the total number of socks that must be drawn to guarantee at least 2 blue socks is 12 (all red) + 2 (blue) = 14.

[ Option B ]

Armstrong’s Axioms are a set of inference rules used to derive all functional dependencies (FDs) logically implied by a given set of FDs in a database.

Statement I says that if a functional dependency B → C holds, then adding the same set of attributes A to both sides results in AB → AC. This is known as the Augmentation Rule. Statement II says that if B ⊆ A (B is a subset of A), then A → B always holds, which is called the Reflexivity Rule.

[ Option D ]

In class A, vfunc() is declared as virtual, which means that when this function is called through a base class pointer, the function of the actual object type will be executed. This concept is called Runtime Polymorphism.

• p is a pointer of type A* (Base Class Pointer).
• When p points to an object of class B (p = &d1;), calling p->vfunc() invokes the overridden version in class B due to the virtual mechanism.
• When p points to an object of class A (p = &b;), calling p->vfunc() invokes A’s own version.
• When p points to an object of class C (p = &d2;), calling p->vfunc() invokes the overridden version in class C.

[ Option D ]

The original function template is declared for one argument as:
template <class X>
void f(X a) {
    cout << "Inside\n";
}
In main(), the code calls:
f(10);      // Calls the first template function.
f(10, 20);  // Needs a new template function for two arguments.
The second call f(10, 20) cannot use the first template because it only takes one argument. Therefore, we need to overload the template for two arguments of possibly different types as:
template <class X, class Y>
void f(X a, Y b) {
    cout << "Outside\n";
}

[ Option B ]

In a database management system, the three levels of data abstraction are organized to simplify data management and improve security.

1. View Level (External Level)
2. Logical Level (Conceptual Level)
3. Physical Level (Internal Level)

[ Option C ]

Topological sorting is possible only for Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs). A topological order is a linear ordering of vertices such that for every directed edge (u → v), u comes before v.

[ Option C ]

Twisted pair cables are a type of electrical cable commonly used in networking and telecommunications.
Twisted pair cables consist of two insulated copper conductors twisted together to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk between adjacent pairs and improves overall signal quality.

[ Option D ]

In Software Engineering, there are four fundamental activities that guide the development and maintenance of software systems.

[ Option C ]

In Cache Memory, a main memory address is divided into tag, index, and block offset fields if using Direct Mapping.

• The index field identifies the specific cache line where the memory block is stored.
• The tag field identifies which block from main memory is stored in that cache line.

If main memory has 2ⁿ words and cache has 2^K words, then:
Index field = K bits (To select one of 2^K cache lines)
Tag field = n−K bits (Remaining bits to identify the memory block)

[ Option C ]

The Cartesian product A×B has |A| × |B| = 5 × 2 = 10 elements. To find the number of subsets with at least 3 and at most 6 elements, we calculate the number of subsets of size 3, 4, 5, and 6. Using the combination formula, we have C(10,3) = 120, C(10,4) = 210, C(10,5) = 252, and C(10,6) = 210. Adding these gives 120 + 210 + 252 + 210 = 792. Therefore, there are 792 subsets of A × B with 3 to 6 elements.

[ Option B ]

Semaphore is a synchronization tool used to control access to shared resources in concurrent systems. There are two types of semaphores:

1. Counting Semaphore: Can take any non-negative integer value; used for controlling access to multiple instances of a resource.
2. Binary Semaphore: Can take only 0 or 1; used to provide mutual exclusion (like a lock) when only one process can access a resource at a time.

Mutex locks are specialized locks for mutual exclusion, but if they are not available, a binary semaphore can perform the same function.

[ Option D ]

[ Option A ]

Two-Phase Locking (2PL) is a concurrency control protocol used in databases to ensure serializability of transactions.
Strict 2PL and Rigorous 2PL are two variants of the two-phase locking protocol. In strict 2PL, only exclusive locks are held until the transaction commits, while shared locks can be released earlier. 
In rigorous 2PL, all locks, both shared and exclusive are held until the end of the transaction. This makes rigorous 2PL stricter and ensures that no other transaction can access any locked data until the current transaction completes, providing serializability and strictness.

• Deadlocks may still occur in both protocols.

[ Option C ]

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) is a Layer-2 (Data Link Layer), bit-oriented (it treats the transmitted data as a stream of bits) protocol formalized by ISO. It supports reliable framing, Error Detection (CRC) for reliable communication and operates commonly in point-to-point links (Router-to-Router).

[ Option A ]

The goal is to insert into the Studio table the names of all studios that appear in the Movie relation but are not already present in Studio.
To insert into the relation Studio all studios that appear in the Movie relation but are not already present, we use the INSERT INTO ... SELECT statement. The correct query is:
INSERT INTO Studio(name)
SELECT DISTINCT studioName
FROM Movie
WHERE studioName NOT IN (SELECT name FROM Studio);
This query selects all unique studio names from the Movie table and inserts them into the Studio table, but only if they do not already exist in Studio. The DISTINCT keyword ensures that duplicate names are not inserted, and the NOT IN condition prevents inserting studios already present.

[ Option D ]

A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is a contract between a cloud provider and a customer that defines expected service quality, availability, and responsibilities. SLAs are important for both the customer, who uses them to compare and choose services, and the provider, who clarifies obligations and limits liability.

[ Option A ]

[ Option A ]

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. It was developed by ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) in the late 1980s. In the context of mobile computing, GSM is the widely adopted standard for cellular networks.
It defines the protocols for digital mobile communication, enabling voice calls, text messaging, and data transfer over mobile networks.

[ Option D ]

A Simple Graph is a type of graph that does not contain any parallel edges (multiple edges) or self-loops (an edge from a vertex to itself). Each edge in a simple graph connects two distinct vertices, and there can be at most one edge between any pair of vertices.

[ Option B ]

A Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used to store data permanently. The notation “m × n” in memory terminology means that the ROM contains m words, and each word consists of n bits.

• The first number (32) represents the number of memory locations (words).
• The second number (8) represents the number of bits stored per word (i.e., output lines).

In a 32 × 8 ROM, there are 32 memory locations, and each location can store 8 bits of data. This means the ROM can store a total of 32×8=256 bits of information. Hence, a 32 × 8 ROM is best described as “32 words of 8 bits each.”

[ Option D ]

In Relational Query Optimization, heuristics are used to reduce the size of intermediate results and improve efficiency. Standard heuristics include performing selection operations as early as possible, applying projections early to reduce columns, and avoiding Cartesian products. 

Applying Projections Late is contrary to optimization principles because it increases the number of attributes in intermediate results, leading to higher computational cost.

[ Option B ]

Array A stores number of cars sold each year starting from 1932 So, A[0] corresponds to year 1932 or lower bound of array is 1932.
Base address = 200
Each element occupies 4 words i.e., 4 Bytes.
We are asked to find the address of the element corresponding to year 1965 or find the address of index position 1965. So,
LOC (A[I])=Base(A) + (I-Lower Bound) * W
LOC (A[1965]) = 200 + (1965-1932)*4
LOC (A[1965]) = 200 + 33 * 4
LOC (A[1965]) = 200 + 132
LOC (A[1965]) = 332

[ Option D ]

[ Option C ]

In this C++ program, the function change is defined to take an integer reference as its parameter (int &x). Passing by reference (call by reference) means any changes made to x inside the function will directly affect the original variable passed in.

[ Option C ]

In a fuzzy inference system, defuzzification converts the fuzzy output from the rule evaluation into a single crisp value that can be used for decision-making or control.

[ Option C ]

The Program Counter (PC) is a special register in the CPU that stores the address of the next instruction to fetch and execute from memory.
After fetching the current instruction, the PC increments to point to the next instruction’s address unless modified by a jump or branch instruction.
This allows the CPU to execute the sequence of instructions in order and supports control flow changes.

[ Option C ]

The line Sample (string s) : name (s), is a parameterized constructor of the class Sample, and : name(s) is an example of a member initializer list in C++. It means that the data member name will be initialized with the value of s before the constructor body runs.

[ Option D ]

Principle of Duality says, every algebraic expression remains valid if you interchange: 
1)  AND (·) with OR (+)
2)  0 with 1
In simple words, for every Boolean law or expression, there exists a dual expression that is also valid. E.g.: 
1)  A + 0 = A, its Dual is A . 1 = A 
2)  A + A =A, its Dual is A . A = A 
3)    A . 0 = 0, its Dual is A + 1 =1

[ Option C ]

In the TCP/IP protocol suite, each TCP connection is uniquely identified by a socket, which consists of four elements:

1. Source IP address.
2. Source port number.
3. Destination IP address.
4. Destination port number.

This combination is called a 4-Tuple. It ensures that even if multiple clients use the same source port number, or a single client opens multiple connections to the same server, the server can distinguish each connection uniquely.

Therefore, even though Host C and Host A both use source port 26145 to connect to Server B’s HTTP port, their source IPs differ, making the 4‑tuples unique. The server’s socket table tracks each connection by its 4‑tuple and can distinguish and route data correctly.

[ Option B ]

      33
     /  \
    2    45
             \
             91
            /  \
          47    95

[ Option A ]

[ Option B ]

Binary subtraction works similarly to decimal subtraction, with borrowing done in base 2. When we subtract (1001)₂ from (1100)₂, we first convert them to decimal to understand the operation, 12 minus 9 equals 3. Converting 3 back to binary gives (0011)₂. Therefore, the result obtained from subtracting (1001)₂ from (1100)₂ is (0011)₂.

[ Option B ]

Banker’s Algorithm is used in operating systems to avoid deadlock by ensuring that resource allocation keeps the system in a safe state.
Steps to check if a request can be granted:

• Check if the request ≤ Need of the process.
• Check if the request ≤ Available resources.
• Temporarily allocate the requested resources and check if the system can find a safe sequence for all processes.

[ Option A ]

Ethernet is the most widely used Local Area Network (LAN) technology. It defines both the Physical Layer (cabling, signaling) and the Data Link Layer (framing, access control). Because multiple devices share the same communication medium, Ethernet uses a Medium Access Control (MAC) mechanism to decide who can transmit at a given time.
The original Ethernet (Coaxial) and early shared-media Ethernet used CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).
 

[ Option B ]

A context switch occurs when the CPU switches from executing one process (or thread) to another.

During this switch, the state (context) of the currently running process must be saved so that it can resume later exactly where it left off. The new process’s context is then loaded so that it can continue its execution.
The context of a process is stored in a special data structure called the Process Control Block (PCB).
The system saves all the information required to restart the process later, including, CPU Register Values (like program counter, accumulator, etc.), Process State (e.g., ready, waiting, running), Memory Management Information (base and limit registers, page tables, etc.)
This ensures that when the process resumes, it continues execution from the exact same point.

[ Option A ]

The Spiral Model is an evolutionary software development process model that combines features of both iterative development and the waterfall model. It focuses on risk management and progressive refinement of the software through multiple iterations (spirals).
Each loop (or spiral) of the model consists of four main phases, Planning, Risk Analysis, Engineering, and Evaluation. During each pass through the planning region, teams gather feedback, reassess risks, and adjust cost, schedule, and number of iterations based on real project outcomes.

[ Option C ]

[ Option C ]

To convert the binary number (1110100.0100111)₂ into octal, we divide the digits into groups of three bits each, starting from the binary point. 
For the integer part, grouping (1110100)₂ as (001 110 100) gives octal digits 1, 6, and 4 respectively, forming (164)₈. 
For the fractional part, grouping (0100111)₂ as (010 011 100) gives octal digits 2, 3, and 4, forming (.234)₈. 
Thus, the octal equivalent of (1110100.0100111)₂ is (164.234)₈.

[ Option D ]

In a database, an Assertion is a logical condition that defines a rule or constraint which must always be satisfied by the data in the database. It ensures the consistency and correctness of stored data. 

Common examples of assertions include domain constraints, which restrict the permissible values of an attribute, and referential integrity constraints, which ensure valid relationships between tables.

[ Option B ]

In SQL, removing data from a table can be done using different commands, but each serves a different purpose. The DROP command deletes the entire table (with all its data and structure), while TRUNCATE removes all rows quickly but keeps the table structure.

To remove a specific tuple or row from a table, the DELETE statement is used with a WHERE clause to target the exact tuple. If no condition is given (in WHERE clause), all rows are deleted but the table structure remains. This ensures that only the intended row is deleted without affecting the rest of the table.

A Database Object is any structure or entity in a database that is created to store, manage, or manipulate data. Examples of database objects include tables, views, indexes, sequences, triggers, procedures, functions, etc.

[ Option B ]

In software development, the Incremental Delivery Approach is a method where the system is designed, implemented, and delivered in small, manageable increments rather than all at once. Each increment represents a part of the overall functionality and can be deployed to the customer for use in a real operational environment. This approach allows:

• Early feedback.
• Risk reduction.
• Flexibility.

[ Option B ]

In cloud computing, different service models provide varying levels of resources and management. Software as a Service (SaaS) is the model that delivers applications over the internet, allowing users to access software such as word processors, Customer Relationship Management (CRM) tools, or email clients without installing them locally.

[ Option C ]

In Manchester Encoding, each bit period must have a transition in the middle, Low to High for bit 1 and High to Low for bit 0. This transition helps maintain synchronization between sender and receiver. If the line stays high throughout a bit period (High to High), it means no transition occurred, violating the Manchester rule. Therefore, the receiver interprets it as a bit error or loss of synchronization.

[ Option A ]

[ Option A ]

A plain text message can be hidden or protected in two main ways. Steganography is the technique used to conceal the existence of the message itself. For example, a secret message might be hidden inside an image or audio file in such a way that outsiders cannot even detect that a message exists. 
Cryptography transforms plaintext into ciphertext via encryption, rendering the content unintelligible to outsiders without the decryption key.

[ Option C ]

A table function is a user-defined function that returns a table and can be used within a query’s FROM clause, allowing it to behave like a regular table. 
Similarly, stored procedures are invoked using the CALL statement, which is the standard method for executing procedures in SQL. Therefore, both statements I and II are correct.

[ Option A ]

[ Option D ]

Address Lines in Memory

• Each memory location in a computer is assigned a unique address.
• To access these memory locations, the system uses address lines.
• The number of address lines determines how many unique locations can be addressed.
• If there are n address lines, the total number of memory locations = 2ⁿ.

Given: Memory size = 512 bytes
Number of address lines n is calculated using:
2ⁿ = Memory size in bytes
2ⁿ = 512
Since 2⁹=512, we find n=9.

[ Option B ]

A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a subset of the edges of a connected, weighted graph that:

• Connects all the vertices together without any cycle.
• Has the minimum possible total edge weight.

Algorithms for MST:

1. Kruskal’s Algorithm:
   • Sorts all edges in ascending order of weight.
   • Picks the smallest edge that does not form a cycle.
   • Uses a greedy strategy by always choosing the cheapest available edge.
2. Prim’s Algorithm:
   • Starts from any node.
   • At each step, adds the lowest-weight edge that connects a new vertex to the growing MST.
   • Also, a greedy approach — chooses the best local option at every step.

Bonus:

1. Bellman-Ford Algorithm:
   • Solves single-source shortest path problem.
   • It can handle negative weights and uses dynamic programming.
   • It is more flexible (handles negative weights), but slower than Dijkstra’s.
2. Floyd-Warshall Algorithm:
   • Solves all-pairs shortest path problem.
   • It uses dynamic programming.
3. Dijkstra’s Algorithm:
   • Solves single-source shortest path problem.
   • It fails with negative weights and uses greedy approach, but not for MST.

[ Option B ]

[ Option D ]

In a linked list, each node contains data (info) and a pointer to the next node (link). When inserting a new element at the beginning of the list, we simply create a new node, set its link to point to the current first node, and then update the head (start) pointer to this new node.

These operations take a constant amount of time because there is no need to traverse the list or move any existing elements. Therefore, the time complexity of inserting an element at the beginning of a linked list is O(1), which means it executes in constant time regardless of the size of the list.

[ Option A ]

In a Multithreaded Process, multiple threads run within the same process and share certain resources to efficiently perform tasks concurrently. Threads belonging to the same process share the code section, data section, and files.
However, each thread requires its own Registers and Stack to keep track of its current state, local variables, and execution context.

[ Option A ]

[ Option C ]

Common Software Testing Types:

[ Option B ]

In graph theory, a Complete Graph is a simple graph in which every pair of distinct vertices is connected by an edge.

• A complete graph is highly connected and contains cycles.
• Every vertex is connected to all other n−1 vertices, so its degree is n−1.
• The total number of edges in a simple complete graph is given by (n(n−1))/2.

[ Option D ]

In this,

• X = START->Link; is selects the Middle Node.
• START->Link = X->Link; is skips over that middle node.
• free(X); is deletes that node from memory.

[ Option C ]

The Schema refers to the overall design or structure of the database, defining how data is organized, such as the tables, fields, and relationships among them. It acts as a blueprint and usually remains unchanged over time.
An Instance represents the actual data stored in the database at a particular point in time. Since data is constantly being inserted, updated, or deleted, instances change frequently. 
Therefore, the primary difference is that the schema defines the structure, while the instance represents the data.

[ Option B ]

A Hypervisor is a software layer that enables virtualization, allowing multiple guest operating systems (OSs) to run simultaneously on a single physical machine. It manages and allocates hardware resources securely among the virtual machines (VMs), ensuring that each VM operates independently without interfering with others.
Hypervisors do not allow guest OSs to directly control hardware or run in kernel mode for managing devices.

[ Option C ]

To digitize a human voice signal, the Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) method is used, which requires sampling the analog signal. 
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least twice the highest frequency present in the signal. 
Since the human voice ranges up to 4000 Hz, the signal must be sampled at 8000 samples per second. If each sample is represented by 8 bits, the total bit rate becomes 8000 × 8 = 64,000 bits per second, or 64 kbps.

[ Option B ]

In C++, Overloading allows multiple functions, operators, or constructors to have the same name but behave differently based on their parameters (either number, type or sequence of parameters).

S1: Function can be overloaded – True. We can have multiple functions with the same name but different number or types or sequence of parameters.

• void addition(int a, int b);
• void addition(int a, int b, int c);

S2: Operator can be overloaded – True. Operator overloading allows defining custom behaviors for operators (like +, -, *, == etc.) for user-defined types (classes). This means you can change how operators work with your objects.

class Complex {
    int real, imag;
public:
    Complex operator+(Complex const &c) {
       Complex temp;
       temp.real = real + c.real;
       temp.imag = imag + c.imag;
        return(temp);
    }
};

S3: Constructor can be overloaded – True. Constructors are special functions called when objects are created. A class can have multiple constructors with different parameter lists.
class MyClass {
public:
    MyClass() {}                   // default constructor
    MyClass(int a) {}            // one argument constructor
    MyClass(int a, int b) {}   // two argument constructor
};

[ Option D ]

[ Option A ]

Modes of data exchange, also called communication modes, describe how data flows between two devices.

[ Option C ]

In computer networks, multiple devices share a common communication medium. To avoid conflicts when two devices try to transmit simultaneously, access control mechanisms are used. These mechanisms can be Collision-Prone or Collision-Free:

• Collision-prone protocols allow the possibility that two devices transmit at the same time, causing a collision, and then require retransmission. ALOHA,  CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA are example of collision-prone protocols.
• Collision-free protocols use a structured approach to ensure only one device transmits at a time, preventing collisions entirely. Token Passing (Token Ring or Token Bus) is collision-free mechanism, only the station holding the token may transmit, so concurrent transmissions cannot occur.

[ Option D ]

In an operating system, CPU scheduling determines the order in which processes are executed. To evaluate scheduling algorithms, we use certain key performance metrics,  Throughput, Turnaround Time, Waiting Time, and Response Time.

[ Option A ]

In an ER diagram, a Weak Entity Set cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes and relies on a Strong (Identifying) Entity Set for uniqueness. The relationship that connects a weak entity to its identifying strong entity is known as the identifying relationship. This relationship is depicted using a Double Diamond symbol.

Since every weak entity must be associated with a strong entity, there is Total Participation, which is represented by Double Lines connecting the weak entity set to the identifying relationship.

[ Option B ]

In the TCP/IP Protocol Suite, the Transport Layer (OSI Model Layer 4) is responsible for providing end-to-end communication services for applications. Its main functions include reliable data delivery, flow control, error detection, and multiplexing.
TCP, UDP, and SCTP are transport layer protocols in the TCP/IP suite. TCP is reliable and connection-oriented, UDP is connectionless, SCTP is a message-oriented, reliable transport with multi-homing and multi-streaming.
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is an application layer protocol used for network management.

[ Option D ]

An IPv4 datagram header contains crucial information that helps routers deliver packets from the source to the destination across networks. Each field in the header has a specific role, such as identifying the packet, handling fragmentation, or limiting its lifetime in the network.

The IPv4 header is typically 20 bytes minimum it can grow up to 60 bytes. It contains fields like version, header length, type of service, total length, identification, flags, fragmentation offset, time to live (TTL), protocol, header checksum, source IP, and destination IP.
 

IHL stands for Internet Header Length. It is a 4-bit field in the IPv4 header that specifies the length of the IPv4 header in 32-bit words. 
The minimum value is 5 (5 × 32 bits = 20 bytes, when there are no options) and the maximum is 15 (15 × 32 bits = 60 bytes, when options are present). To get the header size in bytes, multiply the IHL value by 4.

[ Option B ]

In public key cryptography, a Digital Signature is created by the sender using their private key. To verify that the signature is authentic and that the message has not been altered, the receiver uses the sender’s public key. This ensures the signature was indeed generated by the sender and provides authentication and integrity.

[ Option A ]

SPN (Shortest Process Next), also known as Shortest Job First (SJF) (non-preemptive), is a CPU scheduling algorithm that selects the ready process with the shortest service (burst) time for execution next. The goal is to minimize the average waiting and turnaround times.
Turnaround Time (TAT) = Completion Time − Arrival Time.
 

Total Turnaround Time = 3 + 7 + 3 + 11 + 14 = 38
Average Turnaround Time = 38 / 5 = 7.6

[ Option D ]

[ Option A ]

Both queries aim to find the department(s) with the maximum total credits from the course relation. 
Query Q1 uses a nested subquery with ANY and MAX to select the department(s) whose total credits equal the maximum total credits. 
Query Q2 uses >= ALL on a subquery that computes the total credits per department, which also selects department(s) having the highest total credits.

• Q1 uses = ANY (max(...)) which evaluates to max value.
• Q2 uses >= ALL (...) which also evaluates to max value.

[ Option D ]

A Digital Signature is a cryptographic tool used to verify the authenticity and integrity of a message. It ensures that the sender of the message can be verified (Authentication) and that the message has not been altered in transit (Integrity). Digital signatures also provide Non-Repudiation, meaning the sender cannot deny having sent the message.

However, Digital Signatures do not provide Confidentiality, they do not encrypt the content of the message.

[ Option B ]

Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory placed between the CPU and main memory to reduce access time. Average Memory Access Time (AMAT) is calculated using the formula:
AMAT = (Hit Ratio × Cache Access Time) + (Miss Ratio × Main Memory Access Time)

• Hit Ratio is the fraction of memory accesses found in the cache.
• Miss Ratio = 1 − Hit Ratio.

Given:
Cache access time = 100 ns
Main memory access time = 1000 ns
Hit ratio = 0.9
Miss Ratio=1−0.9=0.1
AMAT = (0.9×100) + (0.1×1000) = 90 + 100 = 190 ns
Approximating to the closest option gives 200 ns.

[ Option B ]

[ Option C ]

To perform XOR between two hexadecimal numbers, each hex digit is first converted into its 4-bit binary equivalent. For (FE35)₁₆ and (CB15)₁₆, the binary forms are 1111111000110101 and 1100101100010101, respectively. Performing bitwise XOR gives 0011 0101 0010 0000, which in hexadecimal is (3520)₁₆.

(FE35)₁₆ ⊕ (CB15)₁₆

First of all, write both numbers in binary form, so,

So,
FE35 = 1111 1110 0011 0101
CB15 = 1100 1011 0001 0101
Perform bitwise XOR:

Finally, (FE35)₁₆⊕(CB15)₁₆ = (3520)₁₆.

[ Option D ]

Data Transfer by Peripheral Devices

• In computer systems, peripheral devices (like keyboards, printers, disks) communicate with the CPU to transfer data.
• There are different methods of data transfer: Programmed I/O (polling), Interrupt-Driven I/O, and DMA.
• In interrupt-driven I/O, the peripheral notifies the CPU only when it is ready, so the CPU does not waste time checking repeatedly.
• This improves efficiency compared to polling, where the CPU continuously checks the device.

[ Option B ]

Thrashing occurs in a paging system when a process spends more time swapping pages in and out of memory than executing instructions.
It typically happens when the system does not have enough physical memory to hold the working set of all active processes. Thrashing leads to severe performance degradation, as the CPU is mostly idle waiting for page transfers.

[ Option B ]

[ Option B ]

• C++ does not allow constructors to be declared virtual. Because constructors are used to create objects, and polymorphism requires an object to already exist.
• The virtual-ness is determined only by the base class. If a function is not declared virtual in the base class, it is not virtual, even if it is marked as virtual in the derived class.
• Redefining a virtual method in a derived class is optional. If it is not redefined, the base class's version will be used. Only pure virtual functions must be redefined, not regular virtual ones.
• The virtual keyword needs to be written only in the base class where the function is first declared. In all subsequent derived classes, the function remains virtual automatically, so writing the virtual keyword again is optional—it is only for readability and clarity.
• When overriding a virtual function in a derived class, the name, parameter list, and return type must match exactly (or be covariant return types). This ensures correct function overriding at runtime using the vtable mechanism.

[ Option C ]

In Object-Relational Data Models (ORDM), the traditional relational restriction that each attribute must be atomic is relaxed. Tuples can have attributes of complex types, such as nested relations, arrays, or objects. This allows the database to better model real-world entities and relationships while retaining relational principles.

[ Option B ]

Database Security refers to protecting data from unauthorized access, misuse, or corruption. To ensure data integrity and privacy, several control measures are implemented within a database system.

[ Option D ]

A Firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing traffic based on predefined security rules. Common types of firewalls include:

1. Packet Filtering Firewall: Inspects packets at the network layer and allows or blocks them based on IP addresses, ports, or protocols.
2. Stateful Inspection Firewall: Monitors active connections and makes decisions based on the state and context of traffic.
3. Application Proxy Firewall: Acts as an intermediary between users and services, inspecting application-level data.

ITU-T X.509 is a standard for Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) certificates and certificate formats used for authentication and trust, not for traffic filtering.

[ Option B ]

Pipelining is a technique in CPUs where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution to improve performance. A branch instruction changes the normal sequential flow of execution by jumping to a different memory address. This can cause a control hazard, because the CPU may have already fetched instructions following the branch, which may no longer be correct.

[ Option C ]

Secondary Storage devices are used for long-term data storage and are non-volatile, meaning the data is retained even when the power is turned off. They provide large storage capacity compared to primary memory (RAM). Examples include Hard Disks Drive (HDD), SSDs, CDs, and DVDs.
These devices are not used for high-speed operations like cache or for small temporary data; instead, they store mass data and programs that are not currently in active use.

[ Option B ]

In software engineering, Feasibility Study is an essential step in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) that helps determine whether a project is practically achievable before full-scale development begins. The four solid dimensions of software feasibility are:

1. Financial Feasibility (Finance): Evaluates whether the project is economically viable, i.e., if the expected benefits outweigh the costs of development, operation, and maintenance.
2. Technical Feasibility (Technology): Determines whether the required technology, tools, and expertise are available to successfully build and implement the system.
3. Time Feasibility (Time): Assesses whether the project can be completed within the given deadline or schedule constraints.
4. Resource Feasibility (Resources): Examines the availability of human resources, hardware, software, and infrastructure necessary to execute the project.

[ Option A ]

The schedule S: w1(A); w1(B); w2(A); r2(B); c2; c1; involves two transactions T1 and T2. Checking for Recoverability, T2 reads data written by T1 and commits before T1 commits, which violates recoverable schedule rules. Hence, the schedule is Not Recoverable.

For Serializability, analyzing conflicting operations shows that T1’s writes on A and B conflict with T2’s operations, resulting in a precedence graph with a single edge from T1 to T2. Since the graph is acyclic, the schedule is conflict serializable. Therefore, the schedule is serializable but not recoverable.

[ Option A ]

In SQL, a column defined as NUMERIC(4, 1) can store a total of four digits, out of which one digit is reserved for the decimal part and the remaining three for the integer part. Hence, valid numbers range approximately from –999.9 to 999.9. Among the given options, only 444.5 satisfies these conditions.
So, in SQL,

• p (Precision) : Total number of digits (both left and right of the decimal).
• s  (Scale) : Number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

So, for NUMERIC(4, 1):

• Total digits allowed : 4
• Digits after decimal : 1
• Therefore, digits before decimal = 4 − 1 = 3
• Thus, the maximum value that can be stored is 999.9, and the minimum is -999.9.

[ Option C ]

To form a five-digit number divisible by 4 using digits {1,2,3,4,5} with repetition allowed, we first check the last two digits because a number is divisible by 4 if its last two digits form a number divisible by 4. The valid last-two-digit combinations are 12, 24, 32, 44, and 52, giving 5 options. The first three digits can be any of the 5 digits, so there are 5×5×5=125 ways. Multiplying the options for the first three digits and the last two digits gives 125×5=625. Hence, there are 625 such numbers.

[ Option D ]

Multithreading refers to a programming model where multiple threads run within the same process, sharing the same memory space but executing different tasks concurrently.
Multiprocessing, on the other hand, uses multiple processes, each with its own separate memory and resources.

[ Option C ]

For a multiplexer, the number of select inputs is decided by the relation,
Select Inputs=log₂(Number of Data Inputs)
An 8:1 multiplexer has 8 data inputs and only one output, which means we need enough select lines to uniquely choose one of the 8 inputs. Since log₂(8) = 3, three select inputs are required.

[ Option A ]

A stack is a linear data structure that follows the LIFO (Last In, First Out) principle. In stack the last element inserted is the first one to be removed. Stack Underflow occurs when an attempt is made to pop (remove) an item from an empty stack, where no elements exist to remove.

[ Option A ]

For a Noiseless communication channel, the theoretical maximum bit rate is determined by the Nyquist bit rate formula. The Nyquist formula calculates the highest possible data rate based on the channel bandwidth (B) and the number of discrete signal levels (M) used in transmission.
Maximum bit rate = 2 × B × log₂(M)

In contrast, the Shannon bit rate formula considers noisy channels and accounts for signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), making it applicable when noise is present.

[ Option C ]

In C++, static can be used in various contexts, but there are restrictions:

(1) You can declare static members inside a class, but not the class itself as static in global scope. However, nested classes inside a class can be declared static. So, this is a bit tricky, but not the correct answer for “cannot be declared static.”
(2) The member variables can be declared static. They belong to the class, not to individual objects.
(3) The functions can be declared as static, either inside a class (meaning it is a class-level function) or in global scope.
(4) The constructor cannot be declared as static in C++, because a constructor is meant to create an instance of a class. But a static function does not have access to this pointer, i.e., it is not tied to any instance. Hence, declaring a constructor as static makes no sense, and is not allowed.

[ Option C ]

Shadow Paging keeps a copy of the old page table and replaces it at commit, which makes it incompatible with multiple concurrent transactions because changes cannot be merged safely. 
On the other hand, Log-Based Techniques maintain a log of all changes and can safely support multiple concurrent transactions, providing both undo and redo capabilities during recovery.

[ Option A ]

Register Direct Addressing Mode

• In register direct addressing mode, the CPU directly accesses data stored in the processor’s registers.
• No memory fetch is required because the data is already inside a register.
• The instruction specifies the register name where the data is stored.
• This mode is fastest compared to memory or indirect addressing modes.

So, in Register Direct Addressing Mode, data are accessed by specifying the register name in which they are stored.

[ Option B ]

To find the number of students who read chemistry only, we can use a Venn diagram approach. Let M, P, and C represent students reading mathematics, physics, and chemistry, respectively.
Total Chemistry = 42
M ∩ C only = 10 - 3 = 7
P ∩ C only = 5 - 3 = 2
All three = 3

So Chemistry only = 42 - (M ∩ C only + P ∩ C only + all three) 
=42 − ( 7 + 2 + 3 ) = 42 – 12 = 30

[ Option B ]

In Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocols, sequence numbers are used to keep track of frames sent and received, ensuring that lost or out-of-order frames can be identified and retransmitted correctly. Each ARQ protocol imposes limits on the sender and receiver window sizes to avoid ambiguity caused by sequence number.

Stop-and-Wait ARQ is the simplest protocol. In this method, the sender transmits only one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next frame. Consequently, both the sender and receiver windows are limited to 1, resulting in a window pair of (1, 1).

Go-Back-N ARQ allows the sender to transmit multiple frames before receiving acknowledgments. To prevent confusion when sequence numbers wrap around, the sender’s window size must be 2ⁿ – 1, where n is the number of bits in the sequence field. For a 5-bit sequence number, this gives a sender window of 31, while the receiver window remains 1, producing the window pair (31, 1).

Selective Repeat ARQ allows both sender and receiver to maintain windows that support individual acknowledgment and retransmission of frames. To avoid ambiguity, both sender and receiver windows must be limited to 2ⁿ⁻¹. With a 5-bit sequence number, this results in 16 for both sender and receiver windows, giving the pair (16, 16).

[ Option C ]

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a storage technology that combines multiple physical disks into one logical unit for better performance, reliability, or both. Each RAID level has a specific method for distributing and storing data and parity across disks.

[ Option A ]

In C++, logical operators are used to combine or negate boolean expressions or conditions to evaluate true or false. The logical operators in C++ are:

• && (Logical AND): Returns true if both operands/conditions are true.
• || (Logical OR): Returns true if at least one operand/condition is true.
• ! (Logical NOT): Negates or invert the boolean value (true becomes false, and false becomes true).

[ Option B ]

A Walk in a graph is a sequence of vertices and edges where each edge connects the previous vertex to the next one. It can repeat vertices or edges, there is no restriction.

• Open Walk, a walk is said to be open if it starts and ends at different vertices.
• Closed Walk, a walk is closed if it starts and ends at the same vertex.

In graph theory, a Cycle is a closed walk, meaning it starts and ends at the same vertex, and no other vertices or edges are repeated except the first and last vertex being the same.
A Circuit is indeed a closed walk (starts and ends at the same vertex) where no edge is repeated. Vertices may repeat, but edges do not.

[ Option B ]

In the given C++ code, two overloaded versions of the function myfunc are defined—one taking a single int parameter and another taking two int parameters. Correspondingly, two function pointers are declared:

• int (*fp)(int a, int b);    // Pointer to function for function with two int parameters
• int (*fp1)(int a);          // Pointer to function for function with one int parameter

When assigning an overloaded function to a function pointer, the type of the pointer determines which overload is selected. Since fp is of type int (*)(int, int), it correctly binds to myfunc(int, int), and similarly, fp1 binds to myfunc(int).

[ Option D ]

In Paging Systems, when a page fault occurs and memory is full, the OS must decide which page to replace.
LRU (Least Recently Used) algorithm evicts the page that has been unused for the longest time, under the assumption that pages used recently are more likely to be used again soon. This is based on temporal locality of reference, a key principle in memory access patterns.
So, LRU page replacement algorithm uses the principle of evicting the page that has not been used for the longest period of time.

[ Option A ]

BCNF is an advanced version of 3NF used to remove redundancy caused by functional dependencies. A relation R is in BCNF with respect to a set of functional dependencies F if for every non-trivial functional dependency A → B in F+, the determinant A is a superkey of R.

[ Option D ]

Given:

• Hash Function: H(K) = K mod 10
• Keys (in-order insertion): [40, 27, 19, 48, 7]
• Collision Resolution: Linear Probing
• Memory addresses available: 0 to 9 (single digit)

Step-by-step Insertion with Linear Probing:
Insert 40:

• H(40) = 40 % 10 = 0
• Store at address 0

Insert 27:

• H(27) = 27 % 10 = 7
• Store at address 7

Insert 19:

• H(19) = 19 % 10 = 9
• Store at address 9

Insert 48:

• H(48) = 48 % 10 = 8
• Store at address 8

Insert 7:

• H(7) = 7 % 10 = 7
• Address 7 is already occupied (by 27)

Use linear probing (check next available slot)
Try address 8 →  Already taken (by 48)
Try address 9 →  Already taken (by 19)
Try address 0 →  Already taken (by 40)
Try address 1 →  Free
So, 7 is stored at address 1

[ Option B ]

The maximum data rate of a noiseless channel is determined by the Nyquist Theorem. It defines the theoretical upper limit for data transmission rate in an noiseless channel.
Maximum bit rate = 2×B×log₂(M)
Where:
B = Bandwidth of the channel.
M = Number of discrete signal levels (symbols) used.
Given Values:
B=3000 Hz, M=2 (says binary signal and binary means two levels, 0 and 1)
Maximum bit rate = 2 × 3000 × log₂(2) and log₂(2)=1
So, Maximum bit rate = 2 × 3000 × 1 = 6000 bps.

[ Option B ]